Mandate Overview
On 27 February 2004, in response to the turmoil stemming from the First Ivorian Civil War, the United Nations Security Council enacted Resolution 1528. This pivotal resolution authorized the establishment of the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI), which was set to succeed the United Nations Mission in Côte d'Ivoire (MINUCI). The primary goal of UNOCI was to promote peace and stability in a nation deeply affected by civil unrest. Initially, the mission was sanctioned to consist of 6,240 uniformed personnel, a contingent that would see subsequent increases through further Security Council resolutions—Resolution 1609 on 24 June 2005 and Resolution 1682 on 2 June 2006, which expanded UNOCI's operational capacity.
In February 2006, responding to the ongoing challenges in Cote d'Ivoire, then-UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan made a formal appeal to enhance the mission's capabilities. This appeal led to the Security Council's decision to bolster UNOCI by integrating an 800-soldier battalion from the United Nations Mission in Liberia. By November 2006, the mission had grown to approximately 8,000 uniformed personnel drawn from 41 countries, ensuring a diverse international presence. Notably, the mission included soldiers from the Bangladeshi Army, specifically the 56th and 57th Battalions of the East Bengal Regiment, who operated in conjunction with 4,000 French troops from the Opération Licorne contingent.
Following the extended timeline for stabilizing the region, UNOCI's mandate was notably extended on multiple occasions. On 29 July 2008, a crucial decision was reached just before the mandate's expiration, as the UN Security Council unanimously voted to continue ensuring peace in Côte d'Ivoire until 31 January 2009. This extension was particularly significant as it was aimed at facilitating the organization of free, fair, and transparent presidential elections scheduled for 2009, which had faced repeated delays due to the post-civil war environment. The mandate was further extended multiple times thereafter—on 31 October 2008, 31 January 2010, 27 May 2010, 20 December 2010, and the latest extension on 27 July 2011—reflecting the ongoing commitment of the international community to restore stability and support the democratic process in Côte d'Ivoire.
History of UN Peacekeeping in Côte d'Ivoire
The involvement of the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI) can be traced back to January 2006, during a critical phase of the Ivorian Civil War. This came to a head when supporters of then-President Laurent Gbagbo attacked the UN peacekeeping base in Guiglo following the withdrawal of the Ivorian Popular Front from the peace process. The violence escalated as approximately 1,000 protesters invaded the UN base, showcasing the volatile political environment and the challenges faced by peacekeepers in maintaining order amidst the conflict.
The situation further deteriorated in 2010 after the presidential election. Laurent Gbagbo, the incumbent, refused to concede defeat to Alassane Ouattara, whose victory was recognized internationally. Gbagbo called for the expulsion of UNOCI troops, threatening to treat them as "rebels" if they remained in the country. The United Nations, supported by entities like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the African Union, stood firm in defending Ouattara’s election, leading to the issuance of Resolution 1975 by the UN Security Council on March 30, 2011. This resolution underscored the need for respect for the Ivorian people's will and granted UNOCI the mandate to use "all necessary measures" to protect civilians facing imminent threats.
The security situation captivated international attention as heavy fighting erupted on March 31, 2011. Forces loyal to Ouattara advanced towards the economic capital, Abidjan, leading to intensified confrontations with Gbagbo's military. UN forces took control of key infrastructures, such as the airport, as Gbagbo’s troops retreated. However, the UN peacekeepers were not immune to attacks; on the same day, Gbagbo's special forces targeted the UN headquarters, prompting a return of fire in a three-hour exchange. This series of confrontations put the lives of peacekeepers at risk, with multiple incidents of UN convoys being ambushed.
As the violence escalated, on April 4, 2011, UN and French forces began airstrikes targeting military installations loyal to Gbagbo. This military engagement involved UN Mi-24P helicopters operated by Ukrainian crews, and aimed to neutralize heavy artillery and armored units threatening civilians. Despite protests from Gbagbo's administration, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon defended these actions as necessary for self-defense, citing continued attacks against UN personnel. The turbulence intensified when reports emerged of Gbagbo’s forces firing upon Ouattara’s headquarters at the Golf Hotel, leading to more air strikes aimed at disarming Gbagbo's regime.
The culmination of these military operations came on April 11, 2011, when UN and French forces coordinated a final assault on Gbagbo's residence, leading to his arrest. This joint operation, supported by helicopters and armored vehicles, was crucial in ending Gbagbo's reign which had drawn extensive international scrutiny. Gbagbo, along with his immediate family and aides, was captured unharmed and subsequently placed under the protection of UN forces at the Golf Hotel. This event marked a significant moment in Côte d'Ivoire’s struggle for political stability and reinforced the role of international peacekeeping missions in conflict resolution.
Humanitarian Impact of Casualties
As of 31 December 2016, the United Nations peacekeeping mission in Côte d'Ivoire has witnessed the tragic loss of 143 troops. These fatalities highlight not only the dangers faced by peacekeepers but also the volatility of the region as it seeks to establish lasting peace following years of conflict. The sacrifices made by these personnel signal the ongoing challenges in stabilizing the country and protecting its citizens. Each loss is a stark reminder of the complexities of peacekeeping in volatile areas and underscores the need for robust measures to enhance the safety and efficiency of peacekeeping operations.
The attack on 8 June 2012 serves as a pivotal incident in the region's ongoing struggles. It resulted in the lost lives of seven Nigerien soldiers, eight local civilians, and potentially one or two Ivorian soldiers, marking a dark moment in the mission's history. This ambush, believed to be executed by a Liberian militia crossing the border, led to widespread panic and insecurity among the local populations. In the aftermath, thousands of villagers were forced to flee their homes, illustrating the humanitarian toll of such violence. The incident not only destabilized the immediate area but also raised concerns about the security dynamics along the Côte d'Ivoire–Liberia border, which have significant implications for regional stability.
In response to the attack, then-UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon expressed his deep sorrow and outrage, calling for accountability and justice. His statement, urging the Ivorian government to take swift action to identify and punish the perpetrators, reflects the UN's commitment to the rule of law in conflict-affected regions. The Ivorian Defense Minister, Paul Koffi Koffi, responded by announcing a strategy to extend security operations across the border, emphasizing the need for regional cooperation in tackling cross-border threats. Additionally, Liberian Information Minister Lewis Brown conveyed President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf's directive to enhance military presence at the border, underscoring the government's commitment to addressing the security challenge posed by militia groups.
Overall, these events illustrate the multifaceted issues facing Côte d'Ivoire as it navigates a complex post-conflict landscape, requiring continuous international support and a concerted effort to build lasting peace and security for its people. The delicate balance between military action, regional collaboration, and the humanitarian response remains crucial for sustainable peace in the West African region.
United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire saw significant changes in its force structure over the years, reflecting both the evolving needs of the mission and the stabilization of the situation in the country. As of April 30, 2012, the operation was at its peak with a total of 10,954 uniformed personnel. This included a robust cadre of 9,404 troops from various nations, 200 military observers tasked with monitoring compliance with ceasefires and peace agreements, and 1,350 police forces working to restore law and order. The mission was supported by 400 international civilian staff, 758 local staff, and 290 United Nations Volunteers, underscoring the essential collaborative efforts and community engagement critical to the success of peacekeeping operations.
Major-General Hafiz Masroor Ahmed from Pakistan served as the force commander during this period, demonstrating the international and multicultural approach of UN missions. His leadership was complemented by Major-General Jean Marie Bourry from France, who acted as the police commissioner. Their combined experience played a pivotal role in navigating the complexities of post-conflict recovery, focusing on the rule of law, human rights, and democratic governance, essential elements for enduring peace in Côte d'Ivoire.
However, by March 31, 2017, the size of the mission had dramatically decreased to just 17 uniformed personnel, composed of 7 troops and 10 police officers, alongside 689 civilian personnel. This reduction in uniformed staff reflects the relative stabilization of the political and social environment in Côte d'Ivoire following years of conflict and unrest. The transition towards a smaller, more civilian-focused presence indicates a shift in mission priorities to support long-term development and reconciliation rather than immediate peacekeeping.
As the United Nations continues to assess the needs of the people and the government of Côte d'Ivoire, the mission remains committed to fostering sustainable peace and stability, aiding in the process of national rebuilding after years of turmoil. The focus has gradually shifted towards strengthening local capacities, promoting good governance, and bolstering human rights, ensuring that the lessons learned during the peacekeeping mission will contribute to a brighter future for the citizens of Côte d'Ivoire.
Force Commanders of UNOCI
The United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI) has seen a series of distinguished leaders at its helm who have played pivotal roles in maintaining peace and security in the region. The first Force Commander was Abdoulaye Fall from Senegal, who served from April 2004 to April 2006. His tenure marked the formal establishment of UNOCI, whose main mission was to stabilize Côte d'Ivoire following the outbreak of civil conflict in 2002. Under his leadership, UNOCI began implementing disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration programs to support peace efforts.
Following Abdoulaye Fall, Fernand Marcel Amoussou from Benin took command in April 2006 and served until March 2010. His leadership coincided with significant developments in the peace process, including the 2007 Ouagadougou Political Agreement. This agreement aimed at reconciling different political factions in Côte d'Ivoire and was crucial in paving the way for the 2010 presidential elections.
Continuing with the commitment to peace, Abdul Hafiz from Bangladesh served as Force Commander from April 2010 to March 2011. His tenure was marked by a critical phase in Ivorian history, as violence erupted following disputed election results. UNOCI's mandate was tested during this turbulent period, and Hafiz was instrumental in coordinating international efforts to address the crisis. After him, Gnakoudè Béréna from Togo oversaw operations from March 2011 to May 2012, focusing on stabilizing the country post-crisis and supporting the newly elected government.
The leadership continued with Muhammad Iqbal Asi of Pakistan, who took command in May 2012 and remained in that position until May 2014. His era involved supporting ongoing recovery efforts and ensuring that UNOCI adapted to the changing security landscape. Following him, his compatriot Hafiz Masroor Ahmed assumed command from May 2014 to June 2015, emphasizing the importance of protecting civilians and facilitating humanitarian assistance amidst the transitioning political climate.
Didier L'Hôte from France rounded off this series of leadership in peacekeeping efforts from July 1, 2015, to June 30, 2017. His term was characterized by continued efforts to consolidate gains made in peace and security, as well as enhancing partnerships with local authorities and civic groups. The challenges and accomplishments experienced by these commanders collectively demonstrate the significance of UNOCI’s long-term commitment to peace and stability in Côte d'Ivoire, a mission shaped by both domestic and international collaboration.
Allegations of Sexual Abuse
The United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI) has faced serious allegations of sexual abuse by peacekeepers over the years. Notably, in July 2007, a Moroccan contingent was suspended amid escalating reports of widespread sexual misconduct directed towards Ivorian civilians. The suspension was a crucial step in addressing the troubling claims and underscored the UN’s commitment to holding its peacekeepers accountable. This inquiry was part of broader efforts to ensure that personnel adhere to the highest standards of conduct, particularly in environments marked by vulnerability and conflict.
Further investigations revealed continuing concerns, as seen in September 2011 when additional allegations came to light involving 16 peacekeepers from Benin. This contingent, including ten commanding officers, was prohibited from further UN service following accusations that they had engaged in exchanging food for sex with minors in Toulépleu, a small town in western Côte d'Ivoire. Such actions not only violated the principles of humanitarian assistance but also inflicted significant harm on already vulnerable populations, particularly children.
Between 2007 and mid-2011, UN spokespersons reported that there were 42 instances where staff members in Côte d'Ivoire were alleged to have committed sexual abuse. Alarmingly, sixteen of these cases specifically involved minors, indicating a disturbing pattern of exploitation and abuse of children during humanitarian missions. These allegations highlight the necessity for robust oversight and measures to prevent exploitation. The UN has since implemented several reforms aimed at strengthening accountability mechanisms and ensuring that such breaches of trust do not continue, recognizing the importance of safeguarding those who are often the most defenseless in conflict-affected regions.
The situation in Côte d'Ivoire serves as a critical reminder of the imperative for organizations like the UN to enforce strict conduct policies and take swift action against those who violate them. Continuous training, stringent vetting processes, and a commitment to a zero-tolerance policy toward sexual abuse are essential steps in restoring faith in peacekeeping missions and protecting the populations they are intended to help.