Historiography of Kalingga
The historiography surrounding the Kalingga kingdom remains a complex and nuanced subject due to the limited archaeological evidence and historical records from the 6th and 7th centuries. This early Hindu-Buddhist kingdom, which is believed to have thrived in what is now Indonesia, is thought to have had its capital located between the modern-day cities of Pekalongan and Jepara. Notably, the Keling subdistrict in the northern coastal region of Jepara Regency has been mentioned in connection with Kalingga, yet archaeological findings closer to Pekalongan and even Batang Regency provide critical evidence that this area was also an ancient port. The name Pekalongan itself could potentially derive from Pe-Kaling-an, further hinting at the significant role this location may have played during the time of Kalingga's prominence.
The historical accounts of Kalingga primarily stem from Chinese sources and local oral traditions, making them often vague and challenging to interpret. Among the more intriguing aspects of Kalingga's history is the proposed connection between Caliph Mu'awiyah and Queen Shima of Kalingga. This theory has been the focal point of various academic discussions, including analyses during the Minangkabau conference in 2011 and earlier symposiums such as the 1963 conference on the history of Islam in Indonesia. Scholars have highlighted this period as critical in establishing that the first interactions between Islamic civilization and the Nusantara, particularly in the 7th century AD, might not have entirely stemmed from the activities of Indian merchants, as widely believed.
Azyumardi Azra, a noted Indonesian cultural expert, has lent credence to the theory of early Islamic contact via Arab traders, signaling a shift in the understanding of Islam's introduction to Java. However, he observes that this early introduction during Queen Shima and Caliph Mu'awiyah’s time was less significant compared to the later surges of Islamic activity in the 15th century AD. Hamka's articulation of the Arab influence on early Islamic establishment in the region finds further support through evidence of an Islamic burial site established in Barus on Sumatra Island, marking its origins in the 7th century AD. This discovery suggests that Kalingga had established trade routes not just with the Srivijaya empire but potentially connected it to the greater Umayyad Caliphate, greatly enriching the historical narrative regarding early Islamic influence in Indonesia and the interconnections of Southeast Asian civilizations.
History of Kalingga
Kalingga, referenced in ancient Chinese sources, has a rich history dating back to the Tang dynasty. These texts recount its geographical positioning as a significant site on maritime trade routes, located to the east of Sumatra and the west of Bali, with the southern border facing the vast ocean and Cambodia to the north. Notably mentioned in book 222 of the New history of the T’ang dynasty, Kalingga is also called Djava, highlighting the cultural exchanges that occurred between this kingdom and neighbouring regions. The society exhibited architectural ingenuity, with wooden fortifications and spacious houses topped with palm leaves, showcasing their adaptation to the tropical environment. Their furniture included items made of ivory, combined with functional bamboo mats reflecting the resources available to them.
The land of Kalingga was renowned for its wealth, producing valuable resources such as tortoise-shell, gold, silver, rhinoceros horn, and ivory. This productivity was accompanied by unique natural phenomena, such as a cavern that spontaneously bubbled with saltwater. The people of Kalingga possessed culinary practices distinct from those of their contemporaries, notably choosing not to use spoons or chopsticks. Instead, they enjoyed a local specialty, a potent wine brewed from the blossoms of the coco palm, which had intoxicating effects. Moreover, the presence of a written script and knowledge of astronomy indicated that the society had a sophisticated understanding of both the arts and sciences.
A notable event in Kalingga's history occurred when Huining, a Buddhist monk, arrived in Heling in 664. His presence, alongside the Kalinga monk Jnanabhadra, led to the translation of important Hinayana Buddhist scriptures, fostering the spread of Buddhist thought in the region. During this period, Queen Shima ruled Kalingga with a reputation for fairness mingled with strictness. In a tradition highlighting the values of honesty and integrity, a foreign king tested the Kalingga people's character by placing a bag of gold at a central intersection. It was only after three years that Shima's son, the crown prince, inadvertently touched the bag, leading to a harsh yet enlightening consequence that shaped societal norms around trust and accountability.
The connections between Kalingga and the greater world are underscored by Queen Shima's diplomatic engagement with Mu'awiya I of the Umayyad caliphate. Historians, including Hamka and Reuben Levy, suggest that Shima's reign coincided with advancements in maritime navigation, allowing envoys from the caliphate to reach Kalingga safely. Mu'awiya's fleet, reportedly composed of around 5,000 ships in 655, facilitated this exchange, demonstrating the kingdom’s significant role in international trade and diplomacy during that era. Furthermore, according to Carita Parahyangan, Shima's lineage would continue to influence the region, with her great-grandson Sanjaya becoming key in establishing the Sunda and Galuh kingdoms, and later the Mataram Kingdom.
In the years between 742 and 755, Kalingga made a strategic shift, relocating further east from the Dieng Plateau, likely as a response to the growing influence of the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty. This migration signifies the dynamic nature of political power in the region and Kalingga's adaptability to changing circumstances. These historical narratives highlight Kalingga's integral role in shaping the cultural, political, and economic landscapes of early Southeast Asia.
Inscription Significance
The Tukmas inscription, a significant archaeological find from the Kalingga period, is a testament to the cultural and spiritual life of early Java. Discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi in Central Java, this depiction in Pallava script conveys reverence towards a sacred spring that metaphorically aligns itself with the holy Ganges of India. This parallel underscores the profound influence of Indian culture and religion on Southeast Asian societies during this era. The inscription is further embellished with a plethora of Hindu motifs like the trisula, kamandalu, parashu, kalacengkha, chakra, and padma. Each of these symbols not only represents various deities within the Hindu pantheon but also illustrates the extent to which Hindu beliefs were integrated into local practices, showcasing a fusion of cultural identities in the region.
Another noteworthy artifact is the Sojomerto inscription, which offers insights into the political landscape of 7th century Central Java. Crafted in Kavi script and penned in Old Malay, this inscription recounts the lineage of a ruler named Dapunta Selendra. As the son of Santanu and Bhadrawati and married to Sampula, Dapunta Selendra is believed to have roots that connect to the Sailendra dynasty, which significantly impacted the Mataram Kingdom. This link not only illuminates the genealogical connections between the old Kalingga Kingdom and subsequent political powers but also hints at the continuity of cultural and religious practices across dynasties in Java.
Historical Context
The existence of these inscriptions indicates that a vibrant Hindu Shivaist culture thrived in northern Central Java during the 7th century, with the Kalingga Kingdom serving as a central player in this cultural sphere. The northern coastline, rich in resources and influenced by maritime trade, facilitated interactions with India and other parts of Southeast Asia, thereby enabling the infusion of Indian religious practices and ideas. Furthermore, the surviving architectural marvels, such as the temples found in the Dieng Plateau and Gedong Songo, testify to the depth of devotion and architectural sophistication during this period. Although these structures were likely erected later, during the early Mataram Kingdom period, they continue to symbolize the enduring legacy of the Kalingga Kingdom and its vital role in the evolution of Javanese Hindu culture.
The interconnection between the Kalingga Kingdom and the Sailendra dynasty highlights the fluidity of power and culture in ancient Java. Scholars have posited that the spiritual and political traditions of the Kalingga Kingdom laid the groundwork for the subsequent flourishing of the Mataram Kingdom. As these early states navigated their identities, they collectively contributed to a unique cultural landscape that would come to define the historical narrative of Central Java. The inscriptions serve as crucial pieces in understanding the complex tapestry of early Indonesian history, illustrating how ancient kingdoms adapted and thrived under the auspices of both indigenous and foreign influences.