First INA
Before the onset of World War II, Japan and Southeast Asia became significant havens for exiled Indian nationalists looking to further the cause of Indian independence. The geopolitical context of this period saw Japan conducting intelligence missions aimed at garnering support from various groups across South Asia. One notable figure in this undertaking was Major Iwaichi Fujiwara, who played a pivotal role in establishing connections with Malayan sultans, the overseas Chinese community, the Burmese resistance, and the broader Indian independence movement. The Minami Kikan successfully attracted Burmese nationalists, while the F Kikan made critical inroads with Indian nationalists in exile in Thailand and Malaya. Fujiwara, often likened to Lawrence of Arabia for his romanticized efforts, earned the trust of these expatriate leaders, starting his endeavors with Giani Pritam Singh and the Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge.
As World War II began, a large contingent of Indian troops, predominantly Sikhs, was stationed in Malaya—around 70,000 strong. The rapid and impressive Malayan Campaign by Japanese forces resulted in the capture of numerous Indian prisoners of war, notably about 45,000 taken at the fall of Singapore. These Indian soldiers faced challenging conditions not only in service but also in their social circumstances while stationed in Malaya. The subsequent discontent among the troops led to the formation of the First Indian National Army (INA) under the leadership of Mohan Singh, an officer in the British-Indian Army who embraced nationalist ideals. Fujiwara's support was instrumental in providing the necessary Japanese resources to galvanize this new effort for independence.
As local Indian support was already present in Southeast Asia, it coalesced into a more organized movement following Japan’s occupation. Ethnic Indians had formed local leagues in Malaya prior to the war, and these groups merged their efforts under the newly formed Indian Independence League (IIL). The IIL was primarily led by Rash Behari Bose, a prominent Indian revolutionary who had been in Japan since World War I. The INA was designated as subordinate to the IIL, and a council consisting of both INA and IIL leaders was established to make key decisions about military engagement. Fearing that the INA might be perceived as mere instruments of Japanese imperial aspirations, Indian leaders insisted that the INA would only engage in battle upon a call from the Indian National Congress. To formalize parameters surrounding their alliance with Japan, the INA sought assurances of autonomy through the Bidadary resolutions, which they envisioned as a treaty between two independent entities.
With the changing dynamics of the war, tensions began to surface between the INA leadership and the Japanese authorities, particularly regarding Japan's intentions towards the INA. By late 1942, these concerns escalated into conflict, leading to disagreements between the INA, the League, and the Japanese government. Consequently, the INA leadership opted to resign, leading to the unit’s dissolution by Mohan Singh in December 1942, with orders for troops to return to prisoner-of-war camps. Despite the dire situation, Rash Behari Bose worked diligently from December 1942 to February 1943 in a bid to maintain unity within the INA. On February 15, 1943, the command of the army transitioned to Lt. Col. M.Z. Kiani under a new organizational structure that reaffirmed the INA's subordination to the IIL. This restructuring included key positions held by military leaders such as Lt. Col. J.R. Bhonsle overseeing military policy, Lt. Col. Shah Nawaz Khan as Chief of General Staff, and Major P.K. Sahgal as Military Secretary, among others, who were tasked with fundamental organizational duties as the INA moved forward in its struggle for Indian independence.
Subhas Chandra Bose emerged as a fundamental figure in India's struggle for independence, particularly recognized for his leadership capabilities and commitment to nationalism. His involvement with the Indian National Army (INA) reflects a complex yet passionate pursuit of sovereignty from colonial rule. Even in the earlier phases of the INA, Bose was identified as the ideal leader by many, including Mohan Singh, a key figure in the military organization who initially sought Bose's leadership to galvanize the Indian soldiers fighting in World War II. The sentiment among the officers and troops was clear—his leadership was essential for garnering support and participation in the INA because of his prominent stature as a nationalist leader.
Bose's political journey began earnestly in the 1920s when he was drawn into the Gandhian movement after resigning from a notable position in the Indian Civil Service. His alignment with nationalist ideals and the push for complete independence resonated with many, establishing him as a formidable voice within the Indian National Congress. The late 1920s marked a transformative period in his political career. He diverged significantly from the prevailing moderate stance of the Congress, which sought dominion rather than full independence. In Bengal, he was often in conflict with colonial authorities, even forming a quasi-military organization named the Bengal Volunteers to inspire youth towards active participation against British rule. Despite his substantial following, Bose's rising prominence led to friction with Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress leadership, resulting in his eventual resignation from the presidency of the party after the working committee refused to cooperate with him.
The onset of World War II posed new challenges but also opportunities for Bose. Following his imprisonment by British authorities, Bose made a daring escape under disguise, traversing through Afghanistan and Central Asia to reach Berlin in 1941. His time in Germany was critical; he sought to organize the Indian soldiers captured during the war into the Free India Legion and established the Azad Hind Radio to communicate his vision for India's freedom to the masses. Notably, Bose's reputation among Indian soldiers remained steadfast, with many viewing him as the rightful leader in the fight for independence. His initiatives caught the attention of Japanese authorities, who recognized his potential to lead the Indian nationalist movement in Southeast Asia.
In 1943, after a series of strategic discussions with the Japanese about Indian self-governance, Bose was invited to take the reins of the INA. This marks a pivotal shift in his career, culminating in his arrival in Tokyo, where he engaged with Japanese military leaders, including Prime Minister Hideki Tojo. His subsequent journey to Singapore later that year allowed Bose to reach out directly to Indians in Southeast Asia through powerful radio addresses. He urged them to rally behind the cause of independence, reinforcing his longstanding commitment to liberating India from colonial grasp. Bose's endeavors during this tumultuous period went beyond military strategy; they symbolized a sweeping call to the Indian diaspora, igniting a spirit of nationalism that resonated across borders. Despite the complex dynamics of international alliances during WWII, Bose remains a celebrated figure, remembered for his relentless pursuit of India's sovereignty and his unwavering belief in the necessity of decisive action against oppression.
Revival of the Indian National Army
On July 4, 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose took on the leadership of the Indian Independence League (IIL) and the Indian National Army (INA) during a ceremony at the Cathay Building in Singapore, marking a significant turning point in the struggle for Indian independence. Bose's charisma and fervent calls to action revitalized the INA, which had initially been formed primarily from prisoners of war. His famous rallying cry, "Give me blood! I will give you freedom," resonated strongly with individuals across South Asia, and thus spurred a large influx of recruits from various backgrounds including barristers, traders, and plantation workers, many of whom lacked any military experience. Bose's dynamic leadership resulted in an impressive surge in membership. Estimates indicate that under his guidance, the IIL's strength reached its zenith at around 350,000, while close to 100,000 local Indians in Southeast Asia expressed willingness to join the INA, ultimately establishing a fighting force of about 50,000.
The earliest iterations of the INA had shown modest numbers, with an estimated 40,000 troops in the first installment, of which approximately 4,000 withdrew when it was disbanded in December 1942. The Second INA began with around 12,000 soldiers, with further recruitment efforts adding 8,000 to 10,000 former Indian Army personnel who had been either captured or had deserted. Interestingly, around 18,000 civilians from India also enlisted during this period. A significant proportion of the new recruits came from local Malayan Indians, with nearly 20,000, alongside another 20,000 who were ex-British-Indian Army members volunteering for the cause. The precise figures of the INA's composition remain somewhat elusive due to the destruction of records by the retreating Azad Hind Government ahead of the Commonwealth's recapture of Rangoon in 1945.
The organizational structure of the INA, though not definitively known, has been pieced together through accounts from veterans. Noteworthy historian Peter Fay, as well as British Intelligence officer Hugh Toye, contributed significantly to the understanding of the INA's order of battle. The 1st Division, commanded by M.Z. Kiani, primarily incorporated ex-prisoners of war and was further buttressed by troops who chose to enlist after the disbandment of the initial INA. The division was divided into several regiments, notably including the Gandhi Brigade and Azad Brigade, underscoring a commitment to honor key figures in the Indian independence movement. The INA also established a training program for recruits, featuring a dedicated school for INA officers spearheaded by Habib Ur Rahman, while also creating a youth wing known as the "Tokyo Boys," selected personally by Bose, who underwent training in Japan’s Imperial Military Academy.
In an unprecedented move, Bose oversaw the formation of an all-female combat unit known as the Jhansi ki Rani Regiment, which drew its ranks from civilian women in Malaya and Burma, symbolizing a progressive step in the role of women during the fight for independence. The weaponry available to this unit was minimal, consisting mainly of antitank rifles and machine guns, but notably, the troops were committed and driven by a shared ideology that transcended standard military limitations. The eventual establishment of a second division and subsequent regiment affirms the systematic approach the INA adopted in preparation for larger military engagements, though these efforts often grappled with limitations in resources and heavy armament.
By October 1943, Bose had proclaimed the establishment of the Provisional Government of Free India, known as Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind, designating the INA as its military force. His assertion of leadership was marked by an absence of formal military rank, opting instead for the title of Netaji, meaning "Dear Leader," reflecting his unique connection with the soldiers and the general populace. The legacy of Bose and the INA continues to resonate in the narrative of Indian independence, symbolizing the tenacity and collective efforts of millions determined to overthrow colonial rule.
Operations of the Indian National Army
On 23 October 1943, the Indian National Army (INA), under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose, officially declared war against Britain and the United States in a bid for India’s independence. This marked a significant moment in the history of India's freedom struggle, as it was not only a military endeavor but also a political statement against the British colonial rule. The first formal commitment of the INA was tied to the opening of the Japanese offensive towards Manipur, known as code-named U-Go. This operation symbolized the collaboration between the INA and Japan during World War II, though the relationship was often fraught with complexities.
Field Marshal Terauchi of the Japanese Imperial Army was initially hesitant to assign any responsibilities to the INA beyond roles associated with espionage and propaganda. However, Bose firmly opposed this notion, viewing it as a demoralizing position akin to that of Fifth-columnists. He championed the role of the INA as a significant military force, advocating for its recognition as an allied army in operations against British colonial forces. To this end, Bose successfully negotiated with Japanese army Chief of Staff, General Sugiyama, ensuring that the INA would receive appropriate military consideration. As a result, the advanced headquarters of Azad Hind was strategically relocated to Rangoon, aiming to capitalize on anticipated military successes in the region.
The INA's military strategy was heavily influenced by its limitations in terms of armament and manpower, compelling it to avoid major battles where it could be easily overrun. Instead, the INA sought to bolster its ranks by encouraging British-Indian soldiers to defect to their cause. The plan relied on a significant number of defectors, bolstering on-the-ground support for their operations. Colonel Prem Sahgal, who was integral to the INA and later participated in the Red Fort trials, detailed to historian Peter Fay how the INA aimed to ignite a popular revolution across India. The idea was that even if Japan ultimately did not succeed in the war, a strong grassroots support for the INA would prevent Britain from reinstating its colonial rule.
Once Japanese forces managed to breach the British defenses at Imphal, the INA planned to infiltrate into the Gangetic plain by traversing the hills of North-East India. There, it envisioned functioning as a guerrilla army, relying on local support and resources. This approach emphasized self-sufficiency, with the army planning to sustain itself through captured British supplies and the assistance of the local populace. This operational method indicated the INA's understanding of the socio-political dynamics in India, as it sought to integrate with and gain the support of ordinary Indians who were disillusioned with British rule. The INA's strategy thus reflected a broader vision for India's liberation, intertwined with military action and a push for popular engagement in the struggle for independence.
INA's Strategic Role in 1944
In 1944, under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose and the command of Masakazu Kawabe, the Indian National Army (INA) took a crucial role in the military landscape of World War II as part of the U-Go offensive. The structured plans were focused on granting the INA an independent operational sector in the ongoing conflict against the British forces in India. To maintain effectiveness, the strategy mandated that no INA unit function below battalion strength. For strategic coordination, the Subhas Brigade was directly under the command of the Japanese General Headquarters stationed in Burma, enabling streamlined operations with Japanese forces.
As the U-Go offensive commenced, the INA's 1st Division, consisting of four guerrilla regiments, was a key component. Heavy engagements occurred in both the U-Go and the diversionary Ha-Go offensive in Arakan, reflecting the INA's role not only as combatants but also as critical maneuvering units in larger strategic operations. Some units demonstrated significant operational capability, with a battalion making its way to Mowdok in Chittagong after overcoming fierce resistance from the British West African Division. One particularly notable achievement occurred when Colonel Shaukat Malik's Bahadur Group successfully seized the strategically important border enclave of Moirang in early April.
Challenges and Shifts in Tactics
While the main body of the INA's 1st Division effectively supported the Japanese advance toward Manipur under the leadership of Shah Nawaz Khan, they faced unforeseen challenges. Although initially tasked with securing Japanese flanks against the Chin and Kashin guerrillas, they encountered a stalemate in the campaign as the offensive momentum shifted. As Renya Mutaguchi’s divisions moved across significant terrains such as the Chindwin River and the Naga Hills, the INA was compelled to adapt their tactics. This adaptability became evident when Khan's forces were redirected to Kohima due to the precarious situation that unfolded in Tamu.
However, by the time they reached Ukhrul, it became apparent that the situation had deteriorated, as Japanese forces began their withdrawal. The INA found itself in a precarious position after the siege of Imphal had been breached. Caught in the relentless monsoon rains, lacking sufficient supplies, and contending with the dominance of Allied air power and aggressive Burmese irregular forces, both the 1st and 2nd divisions were forced to withdraw along with the broader Japanese forces, namely the 15th Army and the Burma Area Army.
Human Cost and Aftermath
During the tumultuous withdrawal through Manipur, the INA exhibited resolve, particularly exemplified by the weakened Gandhi regiment that notably repelled the advancing Maratha Light Infantry along the crucial Burma–India road. The collective efforts of the 2nd and 3rd INA regiments in safeguarding the Yamamoto force highlighted the INA’s ongoing commitment, even amidst grave challenges. Unfortunately, the grim realities of war manifested as starvation and diseases took a heavy toll on INA soldiers, leading to many succumbing along the withdrawal routes.
The aftermath was devastating, with Commonwealth troops discovering the bodies of INA troops alongside their Japanese counterparts, all victims of starvation. The humiliating defeat came at a significant cost, with the INA facing a vast loss in personnel and equipment. Consequently, several units were either disbanded or merged into newly formed divisions, reflecting the dire circumstances that marked the INA's operations in conjunction with their Japanese allies during this critical phase of the war. The events of 1944 thus stand as a testament to the challenges faced by the INA while striving for India's independence amidst the complex dynamics of a global conflict.
Defense of Burma
In 1945, as the Allied Burma Campaign gained momentum, the Indian National Army (INA) remained steadfast in its commitment to defending Burma. This commitment was characterized by the INA's integral role in Japanese defensive deployments. The Second Division, under the command of leaders like Prem Sahgal, was specifically tasked with the defense of critical regions such as the Irrawaddy River and the surrounding areas of Nangyu. This division confronted the 7th Indian Division, led by Major-General Messervy, during their attempts to cross the river at pivotal locations like Pagan and Nyangyu. In the strenuous battles that ensued, such as those at Meiktila and Mandalay, the INA faced overwhelming odds, often resorting to desperate measures like using hand grenades and petrol-filled bottles against enemy tanks.
As the conflict escalated, the INA's situation became increasingly dire. The challenges were multifaceted; low morale, ammunition shortages, and the threats of desertion plagued the troops. Many soldiers began to recognize the hopelessness of their position, leading to a significant number surrendering to advancing Commonwealth forces. The remnants of the Second Division, demoralized and depleted, initiated a withdrawal towards Rangoon, managing to break through encircling forces on multiple occasions. However, this tactical retreat culminated in various surrenders in early April 1945 as they faced relentless pressure and a deteriorating supply situation.
The Retreat and Bose's Leadership
With the Japanese situation in Burma becoming increasingly precarious, the Azad Hind government made a strategic withdrawal from Rangoon to Singapore. This retreat was led by figures like the Rani of Jhansi Regiment and remnants of the INA’s 1st Division. Approximately 6,000 INA troops, under the leadership of A. D. Loganathan, remained in Rangoon to maintain order until the Allied forces entered the city. In the wake of the Japanese withdrawal, many remnants of the INA embarked on a treacherous journey overland to Bangkok. This phase of their campaign has been described as an "epic retreat to safety," highlighting the resilience of the troops as they navigated the harsh realities of warfare while under constant threat of attack from Allied planes and skirmishes with local resistance forces, including Aung San's Burmese fighters and Chinese guerrillas.
Notably, Subhas Chandra Bose, the prominent leader of the INA, chose to walk alongside his troops rather than abandon them to find safer transport provided by Japanese soldiers. His leadership during this tumultuous time displayed a notable commitment to solidarity with his men. However, upon returning to Singapore in August 1945, Bose was faced with a dilemma regarding surrendering to British forces. He believed that such an act, followed by a trial and possible execution, could serve the cause of Indian independence by igniting the spirit of the nation. Ultimately, he was persuaded by members of the Azad Hind cabinet to avoid this course of action.
Aftermath and Surrender
As Japan surrendered in September 1945, Bose's situation took a tragic turn. He departed for Dalian in Japanese-occupied China in a bid to establish contact with the advancing Soviet troops, only to be reported dead in an air crash near Taiwan. Despite the chaos surrounding his leadership, INA troops continued to exist under the command of M.Z. Kiani. Following the end of hostilities, the remaining elements of the INA formally surrendered to British-Indian forces in Singapore. This marked the end of a tumultuous chapter for the INA, symbolizing both the sacrifices made during the struggle for independence and the complex interplay of loyalties and politics in the concluding days of World War II. The legacy of the INA, particularly during this period, continues to be a subject of study and admiration for its contributions to the Indian independence movement.
Context of Repatriation
The repatriation of Indian National Army (INA) personnel unfolded against the backdrop of World War II, as the conflict drew closer to its conclusion in South Asia. As INA members began to fall into the hands of Allied forces, intelligence units rapidly developed a system for evaluating these prisoners for potential trials. Significant numbers of INA soldiers were captured during critical battles such as Imphal and Kohima, and many more surrendered during the intense Burma Campaign led by the 14th Army. Out of a total of 43,000 recruits that joined the INA, nearly 16,000 were apprehended, with about 11,000 undergoing interrogations administered by the Combined Services Directorate of Investigation Corps (CSDIC).
Categorization of Prisoners
To facilitate the repatriation and trial processes, the captured INA personnel were categorized based on their commitment to Subhas Chandra Bose's ideals. This classification system differentiated troops into three groups: the 'Blacks' represented those with the strongest allegiance to the Azad Hind initiative, the 'Greys' were those with ambiguous loyalties but notable circumstances influencing their enlistment, and the 'Whites' included individuals who were compelled to join the INA under duress, displaying no real dedication to the cause. This systematic classification aimed to ensure that the punitive measures taken would be proportionate to each prisoner's level of involvement and the circumstances surrounding their service in the INA.
The Repatriation Process
By July 1945, a significant number of INA members had already been repatriated to India. Following Japan's surrender, the remaining captured soldiers were transported through various channels, including Rangoon. Alongside these INA troops were local Malay and Burmese volunteers, including those associated with the Rani of Jhansi regiment, who returned to civilian life without identification. The repatriated soldiers passed through transit camps in Chittagong and Calcutta before being assigned to detention camps across India, such as Jhingergacha, Nilganj, Kirkee, and Bahadurgarh, among others. By November 1945, approximately 12,000 INA prisoners were held in these facilities, with releases being conducted based on the aforementioned 'colours' classification, allowing for a gradual transitioning of prisoners back into society.
Public Sentiment and Political Implications
As word of the INA's plight spread throughout India, strong public sentiment began to emerge in support of these soldiers. Reports detailing the execution of INA troops ignited widespread empathy and admiration among the Indian populace, resulting in increasing tensions between the police and civilian protestors. Mass rallies advocating for the INA became common, demonstrating a collective defiance of traditional communal divides and showcasing an unprecedented unity among Indians, irrespective of caste or religion. This sympathy for the INA not only highlighted the complexities of the independence movement but also served as a catalyst for a broader dialogue about India’s struggle for freedom. The violent confrontations that ensued symbolized the growing unrest and frustration within the country, compelling the British-Indian authorities to respond with a mixture of disciplinary measures and judicial actions to quell the public outcry while attempting to maintain military order within its ranks.
Red Fort Trials Overview
Between November 1945 and May 1946, a series of ten public courts-martial took place at the iconic Red Fort in Delhi, primarily targeting members of the Indian National Army (INA). The British-Indian authorities, led by Commander-in-Chief Claude Auchinleck, anticipated that these trials would sway public sentiment away from the INA through accounts of alleged torture and accusations of collaboration with the enemy. The accused faced serious charges including murder, torture, and "waging war against the King-Emperor." However, the narrative intended by the British was challenged as the trials unfolded.
Accusations and Defense
The most notable of these trials involved key figures such as Prem Sahgal, Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, and Shah Nawaz Khan. Unlike the expected portrayal of brutal acts, the accusations against them included the alleged murder of fellow INA soldiers while they fought in Burma. However, as highlighted by historian Peter Fay in The Forgotten Army, these alleged murders included presiding over courts-martial for captured deserters, actions that had been sanctioned under the INA's legal framework. The defense team effectively argued that these men acted within the established norms of military conduct. Observers began to see the soldiers as patriots rather than traitors, fueling a wave of nationalist sentiment across India.
Public Response and Political Climate
The Red Fort trials ignited intense public outcry, leading to protests and widespread rioting, characterized as "sensational." Political entities like the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League leveraged the trials to rally support for independence. During Diwali in 1946, a symbolic gesture occurred: many households in Lahore abstained from lighting their traditional lamps to express solidarity with the imprisoned INA soldiers. This unity among various factions within Indian society represented a breakthrough moment, as communal lines began to blur in support of a common cause.
Formation of the INA Defence Committee
In response to the heightened tensions, the Congress quickly organized the INA Defence Committee, gathering prominent legal figures including Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf Ali. The trials became a platform for exploring a vast array of legal arguments grounded in military, constitutional, and international law. Mithi Mukherjee emphasized the trials as pivotal in refining anti-colonial critiques of international law in India. The defense contended that the INA soldiers were not mercenaries but legitimate combatants under the command of Bose's Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind, claiming that they recognized an independent India as their sovereign authority.
Outcomes and Aftermath
Despite the opposition to the court-martial proceedings, the trials concluded with guilty verdicts for many charges against the three defendants, leading to life sentences of deportation. Yet, immense public pressure, driven by widespread protests and riots, compelled Auchinleck to release all three defendants shortly thereafter. Ultimately, within three months, 11,000 INA soldiers were released, although they were barred from joining India's future armed forces, as negotiated between Lord Mountbatten and Nehru.
These trials and their fallout reached beyond the courtroom; they incited acts of rebellion such as the mutinies in the Royal Indian Navy in 1946, which were fueled by growing nationalist sentiments. Historians like Sumit Sarkar and others have underscored the significance of these events in hastening the end of British colonial rule in India, marking the Red Fort trials as a critical turning point in the nation’s struggle for independence.
Post-1947 Historical Significance of the INA
After India gained independence in 1947, the Indian National Army (INA) continued to evoke strong emotions and remained a celebrated topic of discussion among the public and armed forces alike. The legacy of the INA was deeply ingrained in the collective consciousness of a nation eager to define its past and honor those who fought for freedom. In the late 1946 and early 1947, circumstances led to Shah Nawaz Khan being assigned the significant task of organizing INA troops to train Congress volunteers at the behest of Jawaharlal Nehru, highlighting the reverberations of INA’s influence on India’s political landscape even before independence.
Numerous INA veterans found prominent roles in the newly independent India, establishing themselves as essential figures in various public domains. They sought recognition not just for their military service, but also as integral contributors to India's independence movement. Abid Hasan, A. C. N. Nambiar, Mehboob Hasan, Cyril John Stracey, and N. Raghavan took on ambassadorial roles in different countries such as Egypt, Denmark, Germany, Canada, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. Mohan Singh made his mark in Parliament as a member of the Rajya Sabha, advocating tirelessly for recognition of INA members as "freedom fighters." Shah Nawaz Khan’s role expanded as he became Minister of State for Rail, while Lakshmi Sahgal, a prominent figure renowned for her role in the Azad Hind government, continued her activism extensively post-independence.
The INA's legacy also had a ripple effect on socio-political movements in India. In the early 1970s, Lakshmi Sahgal joined the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and later led the All India Democratic Women's Association, demonstrating the persistent activism among INA veterans. The influence of INA members extended beyond borders; for instance, Joyce Lebra, an American historian, suggested that the rejuvenation of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party was in part due to their involvement. The INA's spirit of resistance manifested in various forms, including the training of civilian forces against the Razakars during Hyderabad's annexation.
In the context of the broader geopolitical landscape, it has been documented that some INA veterans played active roles during the First Kashmir War, even leading irregular forces on behalf of Pakistan. Meanwhile, R. S. Benegal, a significant figure among the Tokyo Boys, joined the Indian Air Force post-IND, later earning a Maha Vir Chakra for his valor. Figures like Ram Singh Thakur, who contributed to the modern version of India's national anthem with the composition "Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja," further exemplified the cultural influence of the INA members.
Despite the acclaim received in India, the experiences of INA veterans in diasporic contexts differed significantly. In Singapore, for instance, those associated with the INA faced social stigma, branded as fascists and collaborators with the Japanese. Nevertheless, many among this diaspora transitioned into leadership roles in various sectors, including trade unions, exemplified by the National Union of Plantation Workers. In Malaya, prominent INA figures contributed to the establishment of the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) in 1946, fostering a legacy of political engagement. Noteworthy individuals like John Thivy and Janaky Athi Nahappan became influential in Malaysian politics, with the latter recognized for her advocacy of women's rights.
Thus, the post-1947 period for the INA illustrates a complex interaction of legacy, recognition, and varied experiences, shaping not only Indian society but also impacting the political frameworks of neighboring regions. The INA's continued associations with resistance, independence, and identity serve as a testament to its enduring influence on the historical narrative of South Asia.
INA and Japanese Relations
The Indian National Army (INA) was often viewed as a puppet army for the Japanese Empire during World War II. In its early formation, there existed a significant distrust between the INA officers and the Japanese command. This skepticism was rooted in a desire for formal commitments from Japan before the INA would fully engage in military operations. However, when these assurances were not provided, the INA's first leader, Mohan Singh, made a pivotal decision to resign, commanding the disbandment of his forces. He anticipated dire consequences for his actions, including the possibility of a death sentence.
When Subhas Chandra Bose took charge and established Azad Hind, his approach aimed to distance the INA politically from Japanese control, despite their reliance on Japanese support for weapons and resources. Bose had a history of opposing Japanese territorial ambitions, having supported Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek during the 1930s. While Azad Hind was dependent on Japan for military sustenance, Bose made concerted efforts to ensure that the organization maintained financial independence by generating revenue through taxation and donations from the Indian diaspora across Southeast Asia.
Complex Dynamics on the Battlefield
Despite certain elements within Japan's military leadership being impressed by Bose’s abilities to rally Indian support—especially from the 40,000 Indian prisoners of war taken in Singapore—the reality on the battlefield told a different story. The Japanese command increasingly frustrated INA troops under the command of leaders like Shah Nawaz, particularly due to their deployment in labor-intensive roles such as road construction and as porters. This dissatisfaction prompted Bose to intervene directly with Japanese high command figures like Mutaguchi.
As the situation deteriorated following the withdrawal from Imphal, relations between the INA and the Japanese forces soured further. Discontent grew among INA officers who accused their Japanese counterparts of trying to mislead them into fighting solely for Japanese interests. In the face of adversity, disdain also emerged from Japanese soldiers, who viewed the INA members with growing contempt, labeling them "shameless" rather than "comrades" as had been customary. This breakdown of camaraderie intensified as suspicions arose regarding INA members possibly contributing to the Japanese defeat.
Challenges during Withdrawal
As the tide turned against the Japanese forces in Burma, the logistical challenges faced by both the INA and the Japanese military became a growing concern. Reports from Azad Hind officials highlighted the difficulties encountered in sourcing supplies and transporting injured soldiers during the retreat. Local Indian nationalist organizations, including IIL members and the Azad Hind Dal, stepped up to provide relief efforts, organizing support for their comrades suffering from the impacts of war.
When the prospect of aligning INA efforts against Aung San's Burma National Army emerged—an army that had turned against Japan and allied with Commonwealth forces—Bose firmly rejected proposals for using INA troops in this capacity. His decision reflected a steadfast commitment to Indian autonomy and a recognition of the complex and precarious position in which the INA found itself, navigating a path in a war where loyalties were often strained and ambiguous. Thus, Bose's tenure encapsulates the broader struggles of the INA, marked by both its aspirations for independence and the myriad challenges posed by its associations with Japan.
British-Indian Army Dynamics
The first significant interaction between the Indian National Army (INA) and the British-Indian forces occurred during the tumultuous months of the First Arakan offensive, which spanned from December 1942 to March 1943. This period was marked by a noticeable decline in the morale of the Sepoys, the soldiers of the British-Indian Army, who were mostly unaware of the INA's activities and ideology. The INA, under the leadership of figures such as Subhas Chandra Bose, aimed to gain support from the Indian populace and military by presenting themselves as freedom fighters against British colonial rule. Special services agents of the INA conducted commendable operations designed to encourage Indian troops to defect from the British-Indian Army, capitalizing on the soldiers' growing discontent. However, by March 1945, the dynamics shifted drastically; the Sepoys had begun to view the INA's personnel as traitorous and cowardly. Senior British army officials derisively referred to them as "rabble," highlighting the growing divide between the two forces.
This evolving perception of the INA among the British-Indian troops culminated in extreme actions during the war. Historians Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper have pointed out the shocking reality that some Sepoys, in the heat of battle, executed captured INA members without hesitation, freeing their British commanders from the burden of processing prisoners of war. The culmination of these tensions was notably marked by the orders from Lord Louis Mountbatten to destroy the INA's war memorial in Singapore, an act that symbolized the British disdain for the INA’s legacy and sacrifices.
After the conclusion of World War II, the INA's narrative took on a new dimension as it began to resonate with a growing number of Indian soldiers, leading to a significant change in their views towards their service and the struggle for independence. The British Raj became increasingly anxious as pro-INA sentiments began to permeate the British-Indian forces. A pivotal moment occurred in February 1946, during the trials of INA personnel, when a strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy spiraled into a full-scale mutiny. This uprising, supported widely by the general public, highlighted the sailors' loyalty to the INA and its cause, invoking the spirit of leaders like Subhas Bose.
The repercussions of this mutiny reverberated throughout the British-Indian Army. In various locations, non-commissioned officers started exhibiting insubordination by disregarding orders from British commanders. The situation escalated into revolts against British garrisons in cities like Madras and Pune, reflecting the growing discontent among Indian soldiers. The British response was one of forceful suppression, revealing the deep-seated tensions within the ranks. In the aftermath of the initial INA trials, British General Claude Auchinleck recognized the volatility surrounding military discipline and governance; he sent a discreet communication to senior officers indicating that enforcing harsh sentences on the mutineers could potentially incite chaos throughout India, leading to further mutiny and undermining the army’s stability. This period marked a critical turning point in British-Indian relations and the broader struggle for Indian independence.
Significance of the Indian National Army in World War II
The Indian National Army (INA), under the leadership of figures like Subhas Chandra Bose, was formed with the aim of defeating British colonial rule in India during World War II. Renowned historian Sidney Bradshaw Fay concluded that the INA lacked the military strength to dismantle the British-Indian Army through conventional warfare. However, this understanding prompted the INA to adopt a guerrilla warfare strategy, focusing on gathering local support, instigating discontent within the British-Indian forces, and avoiding direct confrontations that typically led to heavy losses. This tactical pivot was far from ineffective; it enabled the INA to engage in operations that had meaningful impacts on the morale of both the British forces and the Indian soldiers fighting for the colonial power.
Despite its limited numbers and inadequate heavy weaponry, the INA's special services group managed to contribute significantly to the defense against the First Arakan Offensive. Commanded by Mohan Singh, the group showcased the effectiveness of unconventional tactics and operating independently of larger military formations. The early propaganda efforts that characterized the INA and its potential posed a psychological threat to the British-Indian Army. As British intelligence reported instances of INA operatives infiltrating Commonwealth lines, the urgency for counter-propaganda became apparent, leading to the initiation of the "Jiffs" campaign. This endeavor aimed to reassert loyalty among Indian sepoys and maintain morale, especially after their series of defeats in the Southeast Asian theatres.
The backdrop of the 1944 Japanese U-Go offensive saw the INA playing a pivotal role not just as combatants but also as strategic facilitators within the larger framework of the Japanese military objectives. Their contributions included effective diversionary tactics during critical assaults in the Arakan region and the Manipur Basin, functioning alongside Japanese forces such as the 15th Army. The INA provided vital support to the assaulting troops and helped shield flanks during crucial operations aimed at capturing Imphal.
During this phase of the Commonwealth Burma Campaign, the INA’s engagements in battles like Irrawaddy and Meiktila further exemplified its capability to distract and tie down Commonwealth troops, complicating their efforts and contributing to a larger Japanese goal of undermining Allied positions in the region. While the INA's military actions did not culminate in a decisive victory, their role in the broader context of World War II highlighted how colonial aspirations intersected with global conflict, influencing the strategic decisions made by both the Axis and Allied powers.
The Impact of the INA Trials on Indian Independence
The trials of the Indian National Army (INA) marked a significant turning point in India's struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Starting in the autumn of 1945, these public trials became a focal point for nationalists, causing a surge in support for the INA and instigating political unrest. The widespread discontent regarding the treatment of INA prisoners overshadowed existing campaigns for independence, transforming the struggle into a more unified front against British authority. In this context, Christopher Bayly's observation that the INA emerged as a formidable adversary to British power in its moment of defeat underscores the trials’ profound significance.
The choice of the Red Fort as the trial venue was particularly poignant, as it symbolized a stark reminder of India's colonial past and the aspirations of its people. Many viewed this location as an intentional mockery, stirring historical associations with the 1857 rebellion and the trial of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor. The emotional resonance of the trials struck deeply within the Indian national psyche, evoking memories of resistance and the hope for a free India. As the trials progressed, the public sentiment shifted towards viewing the INA not just as a military organization but as a representation of Indian identity and aspirations.
Furthermore, the political implications surrounding the INA's continued detention and the trials became a catalyst for a broader anti-colonial sentiment. There were growing fears that the Indian National Congress (INC) would leverage this support to galvanize a mass movement against British rule, potentially inciting armed conflict with resources brought in from Burma. This apprehension was indicative of the emerging unity among various factions fighting for independence. Figures like Jawaharlal Nehru were suspected of capitalizing on the INA’s popularity to train Congress volunteers, which illustrated how intertwined the fates of the INA and the INC had become in the public consciousness.
Historians such as Sumit Sarkar, Sugata Bose, and Ayesha Jalal contend that the INA trials served as a catalyst for a fundamental shift in British policy regarding Indian independence. The overt support for the INA, particularly from segments of the Indian Army, coupled with rising mutinies, signaled alarming signs for the British Raj. As the INC prepared for the 1946 elections, the British were aware that the renewed spirit of independence among Indian forces could lead to a resurgence of the Quit India Movement that had unfolded in 1942. This widespread agitation was encapsulated by Gandhi’s acknowledgment that the entire nation was mobilizing and that even the regular forces were awakening to the reality of political independence.
In summary, the INA trials not only reignited the flames of the independence movement but also redefined the political landscape of India during a critical juncture in its history. The powerful narrative surrounding the INA and its trials would continue to influence political dynamics well into independent India, serving as a reminder of the struggles endured and the sacrifices made in the battle for freedom. These events emphasized the urgency for Britain to reconsider its stance on Indian independence as public sentiment grew increasingly resistant to colonial rule.
British colonies experienced a significant shift in power dynamics in the aftermath of World War II, particularly highlighted by the activities and influence of the Indian National Army (INA) and the Indian Legion. The British Government, apprehensive about potential mass uprisings across its vast empire, imposed restrictions on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), effectively banning the coverage of the INA's story. This censorship reflects the administration's growing concern that the narrative of the INA's efforts could ignite nationalist sentiments among colonial subjects, potentially leading to widespread revolts.
The decision to deploy Indian troops to restore Dutch and French colonial rule in Asian territories such as Vietnam and Indonesia did not sit well with the troops. Instead of quelling dissent, these assignments often fueled resentment toward colonial powers. In 1946, Indian soldiers sent to suppress nationalist movements in Indonesia, particularly those led by Sukarno, began to resonate with the aspirations of the local populace. Reports from the South East Asia Command highlighted a notable shift among Indian troops, who began to feel a more substantial allegiance toward the cause of independence rather than serving British interests. This sentiment mirrored sentiments observed among Indian soldiers dispatched to other regions, including Vietnam, Thailand, and Burma, indicating a widespread resistance to being seen as instruments of British imperial authority.
By early 1946, anti-colonial actions inspired by the INA began to manifest noticeably within the British colonies, especially in Southeast Asia. Spontaneous protests erupted at Royal Air Force bases in Karachi, quickly spreading to key locations such as Singapore, which culminated in a significant mutiny by British Army units. In British Malaya, parts of the Parachute Regiment openly defied orders, reflecting the rising tide of discontent that straddled the dimensions of class conflict, dissatisfaction regarding pay and conditions, and deep-rooted loyalties to the INA. Scholars like Nilanjana Sengupta highlight this conflation of factors as central to understanding the unrest that gripped military forces during this period.
The legacy of the INA also resonated profoundly within trade union movements and left-wing organizations in Malaya. Former members of the INA became instrumental in the opposition against British rule and significantly shaped the post-war labor landscape. Many prominent union leaders emerged from the INA ranks, which allowed for a synchronized effort in advocating for better socio-economic conditions among the Indian diaspora in the region. Additionally, the establishment of inspector systems in Tamil schools underscored the British response to the increasing agency among Indian communities, as trade union activities were closely monitored to curb the potential rise of nationalist sentiment. Joyce Lebra's research emphasizes that the experience of the INA served as a galvanizing force for ethnic Indians in Malaya, empowering them in their struggle for rights and challenging British colonial authority, ultimately leading to enhanced socio-economic conditions for the community in the turbulent post-war environment.
Controversies Surrounding the Indian National Army
The Indian National Army (INA), formed to secure India's independence under Japanese aegis, faced significant controversies, particularly from British and Commonwealth troops who deemed the recruits as traitors collaborating with Axis powers. In Malaya, approximately 40,000 Indian soldiers chose not to join the INA and remained as prisoners of war (PoWs). Many of these soldiers were later subjected to forced labor on the infamous Death Railway, enduring severe hardships that resulted in nearly 11,000 fatalities due to poor conditions and malnutrition during their Japanese internment. A prominent rationale for their refusal to join the INA was their oath of allegiance to the British King, leading them to view those who joined the INA as having violated this sacred commitment. British commanders, such as General Wavell, acknowledged the hardships faced by these PoWs, drawing distinctions between their plight and that of INA soldiers who fought for Japanese interests.
Historical analyses paint a complex picture of the motivations that led individuals to enlist in the INA. Historians Hugh Toye and Peter Fay note that the INA was composed of a diverse group of recruits, each with unique motivations ranging from nationalistic fervor inspired by leaders like Mohan Singh to personal ambitions or the desire to protect their men from harm. Interestingly, some officers within the INA itself, such as Shah Nawaz Khan, expressed skepticism regarding the organization’s collaboration with the Japanese, believing it could undermine India’s position post-war. Notably, the influence of Subhas Chandra Bose, the INA's leader, loomed large and galvanized recruits with a strong appeal to Indian patriotism and independence.
The INA's legacy is further marred by allegations of involvement in torturing Allied and Indian PoWs. Fay’s research from 1993 reveals that wartime propaganda campaigns, particularly the Jiffs, framed INA recruits as weak-willed traitors, motivated by self-interest. While there were isolated incidents of torture, the notion of widespread abuse lacked substantial evidence during the Red Fort trials. Veteran accounts, including those of William Slim, often branded INA soldiers as ineffective fighters. Critically, Fay argued against the portrayal of desertions during key battles like Imphal, asserting that these reports were greatly exaggerated, while the significant number of actual desertions occurred during later stages of the campaign in Burma.
The narratives shared by both Commonwealth veterans and INA members suggest a biased perception that influenced their assessments of each other. British officers' personal animosities towards figures like Bose may have colored their interpretation of the INA’s capabilities and motives, leading to a distorted historical narrative. Overall, the complexity of affiliations, motivations, and the pressing historical context invites a more nuanced examination of the INA, highlighting the mixture of patriotism, survival instinct, and the impacts of war on decision-making. Such evaluations are critical for understanding not just the INA, but also the broader struggles of Indian independence amidst the turbulent backdrop of World War II.
Commemorations
The Indian National Army (INA) has left a profound legacy in India's history, and its contributions are commemorated through various memorials that honor those who fought for the country's independence. One significant site of remembrance is the Swatantrata Sainani Smarak, located within Salimgarh Fort in Delhi, adjacent to the iconic Red Fort. This memorial features various artifacts, including the uniform of Colonel Prem Sahgal and personal belongings such as the riding boots and coat buttons of Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon. Additionally, it houses photographs of Subhas Chandra Bose, the charismatic leader of the INA, who played a pivotal role in India's freedom struggle. The fort has also yielded archaeological treasures, with excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India in 1995 revealing material that contributes to the narrative of the INA’s historical significance.
Moirang in Manipur holds a special place in INA history as the location where Colonel Shaukat Hayat Malik raised the flag of Azad Hind, marking it as the first Indian territory to be captured by the INA. The site is now commemorated with the Indian National Army Memorial, celebrating the bravery and sacrifice of those who envisioned an independent India. By recognizing such locations, the collective memory of the INA's struggle is preserved, inspiring future generations to understand the sacrifices made for sovereignty and democracy.
Another notable commemoration is the INA War Memorial in Singapore, unveiled by Bose in July 1945 to honor the "Unknown Warrior" of the INA. Despite its destruction post-World War II under orders from Lord Mountbatten as Allied forces reclaimed the city, the legacy persevered. In 1995, the National Heritage Board of Singapore established the Former Indian National Army Monument at the original site, funded significantly by contributions from the Indian community in Singapore. Today, this site is recognized as part of Singapore's historical heritage, serving as a testament to the enduring bond between India and its diaspora.
The INA's battle cry, "Jai Hind," has transcended its military origins to become a national greeting. It was declared the official greeting of India by Jawaharlal Nehru and remains an emblematic expression of nationalism. The phrase is routinely used by Indian Prime Ministers to conclude their speeches on Independence Day, emphasizing its emotional resonance and historical significance. On 15 August 1947, "Jai Hind" also became the first commemorative postmark of independent India, with the initial series of postage stamps—bearing the Indian flag and the words "Jai Hind"—further immortalizing this symbol of freedom. Subsequent commemorative stamps were also issued to mark significant anniversaries of the establishment of Azad Hind, including special issues in 1968 and 1993 for the 25th and 50th anniversaries, respectively.
Moreover, Azad Hind Fauj Marg (Azad Hind Fauj Road) in New Delhi pays tribute to the INA and is home to the Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology. This road, along with other commemorative efforts, keeps the spirit of the INA alive in the nation’s consciousness, ensuring that the stories of courage, resilience, and the quest for autonomy continue to inspire the Indian populace. These commemorations serve not just as a respect for the past, but also as reminders of the ongoing journey toward justice and liberty that defines modern India.
Popular Culture and the Indian National Army
The Indian National Army (INA) has emerged as a compelling subject within the realm of popular culture, reflecting India's emotive struggle for independence. The legacy of the INA has been explored in various forms of expression, including literature, art, and visual media, both in India and internationally. The INA trials in the 1940s sparked the creation of notable literary works. One of the earliest was "Jai Hind: The Diary of a Rebel Daughter of India," published in 1945 by Amritlal Seth. This fictional narrative focuses on a recruit from the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, drawing inspiration from the story of Lakshmi Sahgal, a prominent INA figure. Subsequent decades saw authors like Amitav Ghosh integrate the backdrop of the INA and the Japanese occupation of Burma into their narratives, most notably in his novel "The Glass Palace." Paul Scott's "Raj Quartet" delves into the political climate of the time, with references to the INA in works such as "The Day of the Scorpion" and "The Towers of Silence."
Visual media has also played a crucial role in narrating the story of the INA, with several documentaries highlighting its significance during World War II and the independence movement. One notable production is "The War of The Springing Tiger," created by Granada Television for Channel 4 in 1984, which examines the motivations of INA soldiers and their struggle for India's freedom. In 1999, filmmaker Kabir Khan directed "The Forgotten Army," a documentary that retraced the INA's historical routes from Singapore to Imphal, culminating at the Red Fort in Delhi. This film featured prominent INA veterans, including Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Lakshmi Sahgal, and garnered the Grand Jury Prize at the Film South Asia festival that year. Moreover, the National Archives of Singapore, in 2007, digitized its resources on the INA, offering a comprehensive Historical Journey of the Indian National Army.
The cinematic portrayal of the INA in Indian cinema has yielded several films across various languages. Early works like "Pahla Admi" and "Samadhi," produced in 1950, focused on fictional narratives featuring INA veterans. More contemporary portrayals include the 1996 Tamil movie "Indian," directed by S. Shankar, which includes a protagonist known to have served in the INA. Shyam Benegal's film "Netaji: The Forgotten Hero," released in 2004, intricately follows the last five years of Subhas Chandra Bose, the leader of the INA, capturing the essence of the army's mission alongside Bose's personal narrative. The memorable patriotic song "Qadam Qadam Badhaye Ja," once the marching tune of the INA, has transcended time and is now embraced as the regimental quick march of the Indian Parachute Regiment.
Recent entries into popular culture have continued to keep the INA's spirit alive. The 2017 Hindi film "Rangoon," featuring Kangna Ranaut and Saif Ali Khan, intertwines a storyline around the INA's operations in Rangoon. In addition, the 2020 five-part series "The Forgotten Army: Azaadi Ke Liye!" released on Amazon Prime Video, narrates the INA's tale through the eyes of one of its Captains and his love interest, offering an intimate portrayal of the soldiers' experiences. The series "Bose: Dead/Alive," also released in 2017, further explores the enigmatic disappearance of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, shedding light on the INA's presence during this pivotal moment in history. The enduring fascination with the INA in popular culture illustrates its lasting impact on India's history and identity as a nation dedicated to the pursuit of freedom.