Medieval period
During the medieval period, particularly from the early 13th century onwards, the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate demonstrated a strong allegiance to the Abbasid caliphate, which was essential for them to legitimize their reign in the eyes of their subjects. This loyalty was reflected in various symbolic acts, such as minting coins bearing the name of the caliph and including his name in the Friday sermons. These practices underscored their commitment to the caliphate and confirmed that their official religious stance was Hanafi, a popular school of thought among Muslims in India at the time.
Many Delhi sultans, however, balanced their relationship with the Abbasids with the prevailing political dynamics of their era. In a bid to consolidate power and gain an advantage over their rivals, some of the sultans sought to establish connections with the caliphate, not only in Iraq but also later in Cairo, especially as the Abbasid influence began to diminish. By receiving formal permission from the caliphate to rule, these sultans aimed to appeal to the predominantly Hanafi and Shafei Muslim populace of the Indian subcontinent. This legitimacy was pivotal in securing the loyalty of their subjects and gaining political stability amid the diverse and often turbulent landscape of medieval India.
The dynamic between the Delhi Sultanate and the Abbasid caliphate was more than a mere political arrangement; it encapsulated the intertwined nature of religion and governance during this period. The sultans were not only rulers but also religious leaders tasked with upholding Islamic traditions and law. The reliance on the legitimacy granted by the Abbasid caliphate shaped the identity of the Sultanate, fostering a sense of unity among the Muslim community in India. This relationship also influenced cultural exchanges and the promotion of Islamic arts and education in the region, contributing to the unique tapestry of Indian Islamic civilization that flourished during the medieval era.
The early modern period in India-Iraq relations highlights a complex interplay of political alliances and economic interests. Emperor Aurangzeb, who ruled the Mughal Empire from 1658 to 1707, often found himself in a position of political ambition that led him to support rival factions of the Ottoman Empire. His cordial welcome and support for two rebel governors from the Muntafiq Emirate of Basra signify a strategic move to undermine Ottoman influence in the region. By extending high-status positions within his imperial service to these governors and their families, Aurangzeb not only showcased his diplomatic prowess but also sought to gain leverage over the lucrative trade routes extending through Iraq.
During this period, economic interactions between India and Iraq were particularly robust, largely due to the backdrop of the Mamluk regime's governance in Iraq. The Mamluks, known for their control over trade routes and agricultural produce, facilitated an increase in the commercial links with India, especially through the port city of Basra. Indian merchants capitalized on this advantageous position, engaging in trade that was especially enriched by the exchange of silk, spices, and other commodities. The strategic location of Basra turned it into a thriving hub for trade, allowing Indian products to flow into the Middle Eastern markets while also introducing Persian and Arab goods into India.
The relationships fostered during this time were not solely commercial; they were also influenced by cultural exchanges that occurred through trade. Artists, scholars, and traders traveled between India and Iraq, enriching both regions with diverse cultural practices and intellectual exchanges. This not only helped build a sense of interconnectedness but also established a legacy that would influence later generations. As India continued to engage with Iraq, particularly through Basra, the foundations of an enduring relationship were laid down, intricately weaving the historical narratives of both nations together. Thus, the early modern period marked a significant chapter in India-Iraq relations, showcasing the blend of political strategy and economic ambition that characterized their interactions.
Historical Roots of Shi'ism
The relationship between the Shi'a communities in Iraq and India has deep historical roots, with significant cultural and religious connections influencing their interactions. North Indian Shi'ism can trace much of its lineage back to the Persian influences that permeated during the Mughal era and continued through the establishment of the Awadh state. This state's Shi'i identity facilitated financial and spiritual support for major Shi'i shrine cities in Iraq, notably Karbala and Najaf. A notable project during this time was the Hindiyya canal, financed by Shi'i patrons from India, which was completed in 1803. The canal reflects how religious fervor among Indian Shi'as helped bolster the infrastructure surrounding significant religious sites, creating a profound link that transcended geographical boundaries. As Western colonization largely spared these Shi'i areas until the late 19th century, funding flowed relatively uninhibited from India to Iraq, nurturing the spiritual heartlands of Shi'ism.
Key Figures and Cultural Exchanges
The interplay between these communities extended beyond financial ties. Notable figures have emerged from this intersection, such as Mir Jafar, an Iraqi Shia Arab who relocated to India and rose to prominence as the Nawab of Bengal in the 18th century. Likewise, the contemporary Iraqi poet Muzaffar Al-Nawab, of Indian descent, symbolizes the shared cultural heritage and the literary dialogue that has flourished between Iraq and India. These personalities not only served to enhance the cultural narrative but also paved the way for ongoing exchanges that continue to enrich both societies.
Diplomatic Relations Post-Independence
With India's independence in 1947, Iraq became one of the first Middle Eastern countries to engage in diplomatic relations with India, marking a new chapter in bilateral ties. The signing of the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" in 1952 laid a foundation for comprehensive cooperation that encompassed cultural, political, and military dimensions. The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War saw Iraq maintain a position of neutrality, reinforcing its commitment to the burgeoning relationship. However, during the 1971 conflict—which culminated in the independence of Bangladesh—Iraq, alongside other Gulf States, shifted its support towards Pakistan, highlighting the complexities of regional geopolitics.
Economic and Military Collaboration
Despite the turbulence in diplomatic relations, India and Iraq forged robust economic and military partnerships over the decades. The Indian Air Force's training of more than 120 Iraqi MiG-21 pilots during the 1980s exemplifies the military cooperation between the two nations. This relationship was further fortified in 1975 when Indian military teams were dispatched to Iraq for training purposes, coupled with the establishment of a naval academy in the Iraqi city of Basra. During the Iran–Iraq War, India distinguished itself by providing substantial military assistance to Iraq, despite the overarching global tensions surrounding the conflict.
Challenges and Support During Conflicts
The aftermath of the eight-year Iran-Iraq War saw a significant decline in trade and diplomatic exchanges, a trend exacerbated by the 1991 Persian Gulf War. India’s opposition to the use of force and its withdrawal of military support highlighted its stance during a tumultuous era. In the wake of Iraq's growing isolation and the imposition of UN sanctions, the connection between the two suffered, yet Iraq notably supported India’s nuclear ambitions following its tests in 1998. High-profile visits, such as that of Iraqi Vice President Taha Yassin Ramadan in 2000 and President Saddam Hussein's expression of solidarity regarding Kashmir in 2002, signified enduring ties. The establishment of joint committees and trade delegations further indicated a commitment to rejuvenating bilateral cooperation, setting the stage for a continued partnership rooted in shared history and mutual support.
Economic Ties and the Oil-for-Food Programme
India's economic relationship with Iraq underwent significant challenges due to the United Nations sanctions imposed on Iraq during the 1990s. These sanctions severely restricted Iraq's ability to engage in international trade and limited its access to essential goods and services. However, in 1996, the UN established the Oil-for-Food Programme, allowing Iraq to export oil in exchange for basic necessities, which offered a pathway for India to re-establish its trade ties with Iraq. This programme provided a framework that enabled India to secure oil supplies while also supplying Iraq with goods such as food, medicine, and agricultural products, thus fostering bilateral economic relations despite the challenging political climate.
Despite these economic developments, the Oil-for-Food Programme was marked by controversy. In 2005, an investigation revealed potential corruption associated with the programme, particularly concerning the involvement of prominent political figures in India. Natwar Singh, who was serving as the Minister of External Affairs at the time, was accused of having received kickbacks from the Baathist regime in Iraq. The allegations were serious enough to prompt an official inquiry, leading to Singh's resignation at the behest of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. The fallout from the investigation cast a shadow over India's economic dealings with Iraq and raised questions about governance and ethics within the Indian political landscape.
Meanwhile, India's relationship with Iraq has continued to evolve beyond the Oil-for-Food Programme. In recent years, India has sought to deepen its cooperation with Iraq across various sectors, including energy, infrastructure, and trade. Indian companies have increasingly engaged in development projects in Iraq, reflecting a broader strategy to strengthen economic ties. The enduring relationship is further underscored by India's position as one of the largest buyers of Iraqi crude oil, which plays a crucial role in India's energy security program. This multifaceted engagement demonstrates the resilience of India-Iraq relations in the face of past challenges and highlights the potential for future collaboration in various fields.
India's Response to the 2003 Iraq Invasion
Following the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq, India's position was one of cautious disapproval. The Ministry of External Affairs articulated concerns that the military action lacked legitimacy, primarily highlighting the discord within the United Nations Security Council. India's stance was reinforced by various reports suggesting that the conflict could have been avoided through diplomatic means. This critical viewpoint illustrated India’s commitment to multilateralism and respect for international law, revealing its reluctance to engage in military interventions without broad global consensus.
In the aftermath of the conflict, India contemplated contributing troops to a post-war Iraq to assist in stabilizing the region, contingent on a clear mandate from the UN Security Council. However, intense public and political opposition, particularly from those critical of US foreign policy, led to the decision being shelved. This episode reflects the strong influence of domestic sentiments on India's foreign policy, particularly regarding military involvement abroad.
As the political landscape in Iraq shifted toward a democratically elected government, India took meaningful steps to normalize relations with Baghdad in 2005. This initiative aimed to foster trade and cooperation, signaling India's strategic interest in actively participating in Iraq’s reconstruction and development. Indian businesses began to engage with the Iraqi government, applying for contracts that were vital for reconstruction projects, thereby marking a significant re-establishment of economic ties. The growing presence of Iraqi businesses in India illustrates the burgeoning bilateral trade relations, highlighting the economic interdependence that has developed between the two nations.
Importantly, Iraq has emerged as a crucial energy partner for India, with the country being one of the major suppliers of crude oil. India imports approximately 220,000 barrels of oil per day from Iraq, with the Indian Oil Corporation being a primary recipient. This reliance on Iraqi oil underscores the strategic significance of Iraq in India's energy security, especially in light of the country’s growing energy demands.
In June 2013, India's Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid visited Iraq, marking a pivotal moment as it was the first such visit since 1990. His trip not only addressed vital security concerns but also aimed at enhancing business relations. This visit symbolizes a deeper engagement with Iraq, wherein India seeks to play a proactive role in the evolving political and economic landscape of the region. As both nations move forward, their relationship continues to be defined by mutual interests rooted in security, trade, and cooperative development.
Iraqi Kurdistan has seen a budding relationship with India, marked by limited but significant diplomatic interactions. One of the primary aspects of this relationship is India's purchase of Kurdish crude oil, which is typically facilitated via Turkish companies. This trade exemplifies the economic ties that are beginning to blossom between the two regions. Concurrently, the presence of Indian citizens working in various sectors within Iraqi Kurdistan reflects the evolving human connections that accompany these economic interactions. Furthermore, Iraqi Kurds often travel to India for educational and medical pursuits, seeking advanced opportunities and care in one of Asia's largest democracies, which speaks volumes about the cultural and personal exchanges between the two.
The aspirations for a more profound partnership were articulated by Hemin Hawrani, the head of the Kurdistan Democratic Party's international relations wing, during an interview with The Hindu in July 2014. He characterized India as "an important partner" and expressed a strong desire for deeper political and economic engagement. Hawrani's call for the Indian government to establish a consulate in Erbil, the capital of the Kurdish autonomous region, indicates a recognition of the strategic importance of strengthening ties. His invitation to Indian businesses to invest in Kurdish territory underlines the potential for substantial economic collaboration, showcasing Iraqi Kurdistan as an emerging market.
Following these diplomatic overtures, India's government responded positively. In November 2014, a special envoy, Ambassador Suresh K. Reddy, was dispatched to Kurdistan to engage with Kurdish officials. During his visit, he affirmed India's commitment to support the Kurdistan Region amid ongoing instability and conflict in the area. Reddy's confidence in Kurdish governance and the bravery of the Peshmerga forces in battling threats like ISIL reflected India's diplomatic endorsement of the Kurdish authority's efforts to maintain regional stability. Notably, his announcement of plans to open an Indian consulate in Kurdistan reinforced the commitment to nurturing diplomatic relations and highlighted the mutual recognition of shared interests and potential collaboration in various spheres.
Overall, the relationship between India and Iraqi Kurdistan illustrates a strategic interest in fostering economic and political ties, underpinned by historical connections and a shared vision for stability and prosperity. As both regions continue to navigate their evolving narratives, the foundations laid through educational exchanges, trade, and diplomatic visits may pave the way for an even more robust partnership in the future.