Historical Context of Turkey's Foreign Relations
The foundations of Turkey's foreign relations can be traced back to the strategic approaches of the Ottoman Empire, which adeptly balanced the interests of regional and global powers. This era was characterized by the formation of alliances designed to safeguard the empire’s stability and territorial integrity. After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's leadership heralded the establishment of modern Turkey. During the Turkish War of Independence, the Soviet Union played a significant role by providing military support and financing Atatürk's faction, which ultimately led to the formation of the republic in 1923.
As Atatürk implemented sweeping reforms throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey adopted a policy of relative international isolation. This was a time when the nation sought to consolidate its internal affairs and modernize its society, reflecting Atatürk's vision of secularism and nationalism. The independence and sovereignty of Turkey were further cemented through vital international agreements, notably the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which defined Turkey's territorial boundaries, and the Montreux Convention of 1936, which granted Turkey full control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. These treaties were crucial for Turkey’s strategic position, linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and reinforcing its geopolitical significance.
The tumultuous political climate of the late 1930s saw the rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe, particularly Nazi Germany, which sought to expand its influence. Germany made concerted efforts to sway Turkey through anti-Soviet propaganda and economic pressure, hoping to draw the nation into its sphere of influence. In response to the growing threats from both Germany and the Soviet Union, Turkey remained neutral during this period. To strengthen its position, Turkey engaged in diplomacy with Western powers, particularly Britain and France, culminating in a tripartite treaty in 1939. Under this agreement, Turkey received a line of credit for military purchases and loans for essential commodities, enabling it to maintain its defense capabilities while navigating a precarious geopolitical landscape.
Despite its neutral stance, Turkey capitalized on its strategic resources by selling chrome, a crucial war material, to both the Allies and Axis powers. This economic strategy allowed Turkey to benefit financially from the ongoing conflict. By 1944, as the tide of war turned and it became evident that Germany's defeat was imminent, Turkey ceased its chrome exports to Germany, aligning itself more closely with the victorious Allies. This shift not only reflected a pragmatic approach to international relations but also marked Turkey's transition from isolationism towards a more active engagement in global affairs post-World War II.
After World War II, Turkey actively pursued closer relations with Western powers as part of its broader strategy to integrate into the global political landscape. This shift was underscored by Turkey's founding membership in the United Nations in 1945, which marked its commitment to international cooperation. Financially, Turkey benefited from the Marshall Plan, an American initiative designed to aid European recovery, allowing for economic stabilization and growth in the nation. Additionally, Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952, reinforcing its strategic alignment with Western countries during the Cold War. These developments fostered a warming of relations between Turkey and the European Union, which continued during the subsequent decades as Turkey expressed interest in EU membership amidst its broader geopolitical ambitions.
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to a significant shift in Turkey's foreign relations, particularly with the newly independent Turkic states in Central Asia. Sharing a common cultural, historical, and linguistic heritage with these nations, Turkey strategically deepened its economic and diplomatic ties in the region. The establishment of the International Organization of Turkic Culture (TURKSOY) in 1993 and the Organization of Turkic States (OTS) in 2009 further symbolize Turkey's commitment to fostering unity among Turkic nations. Moreover, the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline emerged as a pivotal element of Turkey's foreign policy, designed to position the country as an essential energy corridor linking the Caspian Sea basin to Europe, thereby enhancing its economic leverage.
The geopolitical landscape in the Caucasus was also significantly influenced by Turkey's actions regarding its border with Armenia. Following its closure during the conflicts over Nagorno-Karabakh, Turkey's support for Azerbaijan was made evident through this gesture. Diplomatic talks between Turkey and Armenia have since aimed to normalize relations, with discussions focusing on reopening borders and enhancing trade opportunities. The resumption of commercial flights between the two nations signals a potential thawing of long-standing tensions and paves the way for improved bilateral relations.
Since the rise of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) in 2003, Turkey has experienced rapid economic growth and has broadened its influence in the Middle East, driven by an evolving foreign policy often described as a "strategic depth doctrine." This approach has sparked debates regarding Turkey's role on the global stage. In the West, perceptions of Turkey's increasing distance from traditional allies and its pivot towards alternative powers like Russia and China raise concerns about its democratic credentials and regional alliances. Conversely, some analysts argue that Turkey's diversified foreign relations should not be viewed as a threat, but rather as a reflection of its growing regional power and complex political dynamics. As Turkey continues to navigate its foreign relations, the balance of views regarding its direction will remain a critical topic of discussion both domestically and internationally.
Diplomatic Relations
Turkey's approach to diplomatic relations has often been complex and influenced by historical, political, and regional factors. Despite being one of the first countries to recognize Armenia’s independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Turkey has notably refrained from establishing formal diplomatic ties with Armenia. The absence of formal relations can be mainly attributed to the lingering tensions over historical grievances, particularly relating to the events of 1915, which many Armenians and several countries categorize as genocide, a characterization that Turkey vehemently disputes.
In the region, Turkey has had a historically unique relationship with Cyprus, a divided island since 1974, where Turkey maintains a military presence in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, recognized only by Turkey. Similarly, Turkey once maintained diplomatic relations with Syria, but the civil war and subsequent tensions have led to a significant deterioration in relations between the two nations. Taiwan is another example where Turkey had diplomatic relations in the past, but these have since changed in light of Turkey's recognition of the One China policy in accordance with its broader foreign policy objectives.
As a nation that bridges East and West, Turkey has pursued diplomatic relations with numerous countries globally, focusing on strengthening its geopolitical influence. Currently, Turkey maintains diplomatic relations with a variety of nations across different continents, including but not limited to the United States, several European Union member states, numerous countries in the Middle East, and African nations. This diplomatic engagement has allowed Turkey to participate actively in regional organizations and alliances, such as NATO and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), aligning itself with numerous international agendas and endeavors.
Engaging in diplomacy remains crucial for Turkey as it navigates its interests in foreign policy, particularly in areas such as trade, security, and regional stability. Nonetheless, the absence of formal relations with Armenia poses challenges in enhancing economic and political cooperation within the South Caucasus region, highlighting the intricate balance Turkey seeks to achieve in its foreign relations.
Africa
Since the late 1990s, Turkey's engagement with Africa has taken a significant turn, particularly following 1998, when there was a notable revival in relations fueled by the activities of civil society organizations. These organizations played a crucial role in laying the groundwork for a more robust interaction between Turkey and various African nations. In the initial stages, Turkey's approach was more passive, focusing primarily on diplomatic outreach and humanitarian efforts. However, by 2005, this engagement evolved into a more proactive strategy, reflecting Turkey's growing interest in establishing deeper and mutually beneficial relationships with African countries.
The Turkey–Africa Cooperation Summit held in 2008 stands as a pivotal moment in this evolving relationship. This summit not only highlighted Turkey's commitment to strengthening ties with the African continent but also served as a platform for discussing various collaborative initiatives in trade, investment, cultural exchange, and development assistance. The summit represented a historic commitment to fostering partnerships that are multifaceted and sustainable, enhancing Turkey's role as a strategic ally for African nations seeking economic growth and development.
A notable aspect of Turkey's involvement in Africa is its active participation in humanitarian and development projects, particularly since its increased focus on Somalia in 2011. This marked Turkey's entry into a key geopolitical area in Africa, allowing it to position itself as a significant political actor that prioritizes development and stability in the region. Turkey’s assertive approach includes diplomatic missions, economic investments, and various capacity-building initiatives designed to empower local communities. As a result, Turkey's relations with Africa continue to grow, reinforcing its image as a dedicated partner in supporting the continent's aspirations for progress and self-reliance.
Turkey's Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa
Since 2008, Turkey has actively sought to strengthen its ties with Sub-Saharan Africa, marking a significant shift in its foreign policy approach. The motivation behind this strategy is rooted in a desire to cultivate friendly relations, particularly given the often contentious dynamics present in Turkey's immediate neighborhood. By fostering diplomatic and economic connections with African nations, Turkey aims to establish a partnership built on mutual respect and collaboration. Public sentiment in Turkey, characterized by a strong sense of fellowship and solidarity towards African countries, has played a crucial role in this endeavor, allowing economic and diplomatic relations to flourish. This burgeoning relationship is evidenced by a substantial increase in foreign trade, which escalated from just US$581 million in 1998 to an impressive US$5.08 billion by 2015.
Historically, Turkey's engagement with the region can be traced back to the 1800s when the Ottoman Empire began to exert influence in Africa, particularly during the 1860s when it dispatched trained imams to the area. This early connection laid the groundwork for future interactions; however, European colonial powers effectively curtailed Ottoman influence by 1885. The revival of Turkey's relations with Sub-Saharan Africa began in the 1950s, gaining significant momentum following key diplomatic visits, including that of Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia to Turkey in the late 1960s. Such visits symbolized a renewed commitment to bilateral cooperation and economic partnership.
In recent years, Turkey's contribution to the African continent has expanded beyond trade to include active participation in peacekeeping missions. Turkey has been involved in several United Nations missions across diverse conflict zones such as the Ivory Coast, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, the Central African Republic, and Chad, showcasing its commitment to regional stability and security. Furthermore, Turkey's financial aid initiatives have been a focal point of its relations with Sub-Saharan Africa, with a striking total of US$6.38 billion allocated between 2006 and 2011. Notably, in response to the severe famine in East Africa in 2011, Turkey provided a significant donation of US$200 million, underscoring its role as an important partner in humanitarian efforts across the region.
This multifaceted approach—encompassing trade, diplomacy, peacekeeping, and humanitarian assistance—reflects Turkey's determination to play a pivotal role in Sub-Saharan Africa's socio-economic development while simultaneously promoting a narrative of friendship and solidarity.
Turkey's Role in International Organizations
Turkey has been an active player in the global community since its establishment as a republic. It is a founding member of the United Nations, which was established in 1945, and has since integrated itself into various international organizations. As a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) since 1961, Turkey has contributed to the promotion of economic growth and improved living standards in member countries. Additionally, Turkey plays a significant role in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) since its inception in 1969, acting as a bridge between Islamic societies and the international community.
Turkey's membership in NATO since 1952 positions it as a critical player in regional and global security dynamics. Its geographical location is pivotal, controlling the Turkish Straits that serve as a crucial maritime connection between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. This strategic position enhances Turkey's influence in NATO, as it directly borders conflict zones, including Syria, Iraq, and Iran. The presence of NATO headquarters in İzmir and vital U.S. air operations at Incirlik Air Base underscore Turkey’s military significance within the alliance.
Turkey’s efforts to deepen its economic connections are evident through its membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995 and its active participation in the G20 industrial nations since 1999. Trade agreements with various countries and economic blocs, such as the European Free Trade Association and Israel, reflect Turkey’s commitment to international commerce. Furthermore, the establishment of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) in 1992 illustrates Turkey's endeavor to promote regional economic cooperation among member states.
Turkey's Diplomatic Relations and Trade Ties
Turkey maintains a vast web of diplomatic relations around the world, dating back centuries in some cases. Key partnerships include long-standing ties with countries such as Russia, the United States, and various nations across Europe. For instance, Turkey has had official relations with Russia since 1492, solidifying trade and military collaborations over the centuries. The United Kingdom recognized Turkey in 1583, and both countries have fostered significant economic exchanges, particularly in tourism and trade.
The trade volume between Turkey and its key partners has grown substantially over the years. For example, in recent years, trade with Ukraine reached approximately $4.8 billion, while the relationship with Germany led to a trade volume of around $35.9 billion in 2018, marking Turkey as a significant trading partner for both nations. The cultural and economic exchanges fostered through these diplomatic ties have strengthened Turkey’s standing in international politics.
In addition to its historical ties with European states, Turkey has made significant inroads with nations in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The development of relations with Algeria, Egypt, Libya, and other North African countries has resulted in considerable trade volumes, highlighting Turkey's intent to expand its influence beyond its traditional borders.
Turkey's commitment to fostering international relationships is equally demonstrated through its active participation in international summits alongside its diplomatic missions, which provide avenues for dialogue, mutual cooperation, and cultural exchange. The diversity of its partnerships, spanning continents and cultures, plays a vital role in shaping Turkey’s foreign policy and global engagement strategy.