History of Ottoman Empire and Turkish Foreign Relations
The foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire and subsequently Turkey have historically been characterized by a strategic balancing act, whereby the government sought to cultivate alliances with regional and global powers to safeguard its interests. This dynamic approach allowed the incumbent regime to navigate the complexities of international diplomacy effectively. A significant chapter in this narrative unfolded during the Turkish War of Independence when the Soviet Union played an instrumental role by providing military and financial support to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's faction. Despite this initial alliance, Turkey embarked on a path of relative international isolation during the transformative years of Atatürk's Reforms in the 1920s and 1930s, focusing primarily on domestic modernization and nation-building.
Turkey's strategic geographical position at the crossroads of Europe and Asia afforded it a pivotal role in controlling vital maritime routes. This was formalized through international agreements such as the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which established Turkey's borders and recognized its sovereignty, and the Montreux Convention in 1936, granting Turkey full control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. These treaties not only solidified Turkey's territorial integrity but also its critical role in regional security, allowing it to manage shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
As Europe edged toward World War II, the political landscape in Turkey grew increasingly tense, particularly with the aggressive stance of Nazi Germany. In the late 1930s, Germany attempted to sway Turkey through anti-Soviet propaganda and economic coercion. In response, Britain and France sought to counterbalance German influence by negotiating a tripartite treaty with Turkey in 1939, which included financial assistance to procure war materials from Western powers. Despite the looming threat from both Germany and the Soviet Union, Turkey adopted a policy of neutrality during this period. Notably, Turkey engaged in trade by selling essential minerals, such as chrome, to both the Allied and Axis powers. By 1944, however, with the tide of war firmly against Germany, Turkey ceased chrome exports to the Nazi regime, aligning its economic and diplomatic stance more closely with the winning side.
This period not only highlights Turkey's strategic calculations in the face of global conflict but also underscores how its foreign relations have been historically shaped by the need to maintain sovereignty and stability in a volatile region.
After World War II, Turkey embarked on a diplomatic journey aimed at fostering closer ties with Western nations. This strategic pivot was underscored by its membership in several key international organizations. Turkey became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945, signifying its commitment to global governance and cooperation. In the following years, Turkey benefited from the Marshall Plan, a U.S.-led initiative designed to help European economies recover from the devastation of war. Additionally, Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952, aligning itself with Western military powers at the height of the Cold War, which greatly influenced its foreign and security policies.
Throughout the Cold War and into the post-Cold War era, Turkey's international relationships evolved significantly, reflecting its aspirations for regional influence. Turkey sought to extend its presence in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the Caucasus, regions steeped in historical and geopolitical significance. Importantly, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent independence of several Turkic republics in 1991 opened new avenues for Turkey to engage with nations sharing similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds. In response, Turkey was proactive in establishing formal relations with these nations and played a pivotal role in forming institutions like the International Organization of Turkic Culture (TURKSOY) in 1993 and the Organization of Turkic States (OTS) in 2009, which aimed to foster cooperation among Turkic-speaking countries.
One of the cornerstone projects of Turkey's foreign policy has been the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, which functions as a critical energy corridor linking Azerbaijan to Turkey, thereby providing a route for oil and natural gas from the Caspian Sea to Europe. This pipeline not only enhances Turkey's energy security but also positions it as a vital energy hub in the region. Turkey's relationships with its neighbors have not been without tension; it closed its land border with Armenia in a show of solidarity with Azerbaijan during the conflicts over Nagorno-Karabakh, particularly during the First and Second Nagorno-Karabakh Wars in 1993 and 2020. However, recent diplomatic dialogues between Armenia and Turkey have initiated efforts to normalize relations, suggesting a possible thaw in a historically fraught interaction, with developments such as the resumption of commercial flights and discussions regarding border openings signaling positive shifts.
Since the Justice and Development Party (AKP) came to power in 2003, Turkey's economy has experienced significant growth, which in turn has augmented its influence in the Middle East. This period has sparked discussions around Turkey's "strategic depth" doctrine, often mischaracterized as Neo-Ottomanism—a term that reflects a perceived revival of Ottoman-era ambitions. The discourse surrounding Turkey's foreign relations remains highly contentious, both domestically and internationally. In the West, apprehensions have emerged regarding Turkey's evolving political landscape and its gradual shift away from traditional Western alliances, along with concerns over increasing authoritarianism and a potential rapprochement with Russia and China. Conversely, some analysts argue that Turkey's diversification of its foreign relations and its rise as a regional power should not be perceived as a threat but rather as a natural evolution of its geopolitical stance. This complex intersection of regional aspirations, historical ties, and modern geopolitical realities continues to shape Turkey's role on the global stage.
Diplomatic Relations between Turkey and Armenia
Turkey was one of the first nations to acknowledge Armenia's independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. However, despite this initial recognition, Turkey has not established formal diplomatic relations with Armenia. This absence of formal ties has historical and political roots, predominantly influenced by the complex historical narratives surrounding the Armenian Genocide and regional geopolitics. The lack of diplomatic relations has hindered economic and cultural exchanges between the two countries, creating a strained relationship that persists to this day.
The historical backdrop involves significant events, including the Ottoman Empire's actions during World War I, which led to the mass deportation and killing of Armenians. This tragic chapter, known as the Armenian Genocide, remains a deeply contentious issue between the two nations. Turkey's refusal to recognize the events as genocide further complicates potential reconciliation. Consequently, Armenia's calls for recognition of the genocide have often met with resistance from Turkish officials. Consequently, dialogue between the two nations has been sporadic and fraught with mistrust, leading to closed borders and a lack of mutual cooperation.
Turkey does maintain diplomatic relations with a variety of other countries, including Cyprus, Syria, and Taiwan. Diplomatic relations in this context are essential as they facilitate political dialogue, economic partnerships, and cultural exchange. For Armenia, the absence of such relations with Turkey points to broader challenges in regional stability, particularly in the South Caucasus, where geopolitical dynamics are influenced by neighboring powers like Russia, Iran, and Azerbaijan. Moreover, the unresolved status of Nagorno-Karabakh further exacerbates tensions and continues to shape the foreign policies of both Armenia and Turkey, influencing their relationships with other states in the region.
The broader implications of these diplomatic gaps highlight the ongoing struggles faced by smaller nations in navigating the complex web of international relations. Over time, it remains to be seen whether Turkey and Armenia can overcome their historical grievances and develop a framework for formal dialogue, potentially leading to improved relations and collaboration on various fronts such as trade, security, and cultural exchanges.
Revival of Turkey's Relations with Africa
The relationship between Turkey and Africa has experienced a noteworthy revival since 1998, driven primarily by the increasing involvement of civil society organizations. Initially characterized by a more passive approach, it was not until after 2005 that Turkey's strategy shifted towards a more proactive effort to enhance diplomatic, economic, and cultural ties with various African nations. This transition reflects a growing recognition of Africa's importance on the global stage and a desire for deeper engagement with the continent's diverse opportunities.
The Turkey–Africa Cooperation Summit held in 2008 marked a pivotal moment in this burgeoning relationship. This summit not only underscored Turkey's commitment to strengthening its ties with African countries but also provided a platform for dialogue, partnership, and collaboration on various issues including trade, investment, and development. The event contributed to a framework for cooperative relationships that aim to benefit both parties, signaling to the African continent that Turkey is deeply invested in building genuine partnerships.
Moreover, Turkey's engagement in Somalia starting in 2011 demonstrates its aspiration to emerge as a key political actor within Africa. The humanitarian aid and infrastructural investments made by Turkey in Somalia have garnered attention and appreciation, helping to establish Turkey as a trusted partner in the region. This involvement has allowed Turkey to leverage its influence and pursue strategic interests while promoting stability and development in areas challenged by conflict and humanitarian crises. As Turkey continues to expand its presence in Africa, the relationship is likely to evolve, becoming increasingly significant as both regions seek to navigate the complexities of the international landscape.
Turkey's Evolving Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa
Since 2008, Turkey has made significant efforts to establish and strengthen friendly relations with nations in sub-Saharan Africa, a move driven largely by the desire to foster conflict-free partnerships in contrast to the increasingly hostile dynamics in its immediate neighborhood. This approach resonates deeply with the Turkish population, who share a strong sentiment of fellowship with Africans. As a result, economic and diplomatic ties between Turkey and sub-Saharan Africa have prospered, with foreign trade experiencing remarkable growth—rising from a modest US$581 million in 1998 to an impressive US$5.08 billion by 2015. This growth reflects Turkey's commitment to expanding its influence and engagement in the African continent.
The history of Turkish relations with sub-Saharan Africa is not a recent phenomenon; it dates back to the 1800s when the Ottoman Empire began to establish connections in the region. A notable phase began in the 1860s when the Empire sent trained imams to the region, promoting cultural and religious ties. However, this interaction was curtailed by the colonial ambitions of other European powers in 1885, which hindered Ottoman efforts to expand its influence. Diplomatic relations were revived in the 1950s, gaining further momentum when Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie visited Turkey in 1967 and 1969, marking a significant point in diplomatic engagements.
In more contemporary contexts, Turkey has played a proactive role in supporting peace and stability in sub-Saharan Africa. Since 2008, it has participated in various international peacekeeping missions, including important operations under the United Nations in countries such as Ivory Coast, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, the Central African Republic, and Chad. This commitment not only underscores Turkey's dedication to enhancing security in the region but also reflects its broader geopolitical strategy to establish itself as a key player in African affairs.
Moreover, Turkey has significantly increased its financial aid to sub-Saharan Africa, recognizing the urgent need for support in areas such as development and humanitarian assistance. Between 2006 and 2011 alone, Turkey contributed a remarkable US$6.38 billion to the region. This assistance extended to vital emergency aid, such as the US$200 million donation in 2011 aimed at combating famine in East Africa. Such generous contributions highlight Turkey's position as a compassionate partner and reinforce its intent to engage deeply with the socio-economic challenges faced by African nations, fostering mutual benefits in the process.
Turkey's Role in International Organizations
Turkey has a significant presence in various international organizations and plays a strategic role in global governance. As a founding member of the United Nations in 1945, it has been an active participant in addressing international issues ranging from peacekeeping to socioeconomic development. Additionally, Turkey is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) since 1961, where it engages with other nations in discussions and actions aimed at fostering economic growth and stability. Its involvement in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (1969), the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) established in 1973, and the G20 industrial nations since 1999 reflects Turkey's aim to serve as a bridge between the East and West, especially within global economic and security dialogues.
Turkey's NATO membership, which it joined in 1952, further emphasizes its strategic importance, particularly as it controls the Turkish Straits gateway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This vital positional control increases its significance within the organization's eastern flank, as it shares borders with Syria, Iraq, and Iran. Furthermore, NATO headquarters in İzmir and operational U.S. air forces located at Incirlik Air Base enhance Turkey's role as a key player in regional security dynamics. Full accession negotiations with the European Union began in 2005, though Turkey has been an associate member since 1963. This long-standing relationship has facilitated economic ties and cultural exchanges.
Turkey is also an influential member state of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995 and has established free trade agreements with various countries, including those in the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and Israel. The Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) was formed in 1992, showcasing Turkey's commitment to enhancing regional trade and economic collaboration. Moreover, Turkey's recognition as a Sectoral Dialogue Partner by ASEAN in 2017 indicates its growing influence in Southeast Asia, enhancing its diplomatic reach beyond Europe and the Middle East.
Bilateral Relations and Trade Volume
Turkey's international relations are characterized by a diverse range of bilateral partnerships across continents. In 2019, Turkey engaged in significant trade with various countries, demonstrating its robust economy and extensive network. For instance, trade volume with Germany reached approximately $35.9 billion, making it one of Turkey's largest trading partners within the EU framework. Similarly, trade with Russia amounted to $26.3 billion, underscoring the close economic ties between these neighboring countries. Additionally, trade relations with countries like the United States and China emphasize Turkey's role as a dynamic player in global trade, with volumes of $1.3 billion and $21.08 billion, respectively.
Turkey's strategic relationships in the Middle East are also notable, particularly with Iran and Iraq. The trade volume with Iran was approximately $5.6 billion in 2019, showcasing mutual economic interests despite political tensions in the region. Iraq, too, has strong economic ties with Turkey, with trade reaching nearly $9.77 billion, emphasizing Turkey's role as a crucial partner for Iraq in energy and infrastructure development.
Moreover, relationships with African nations such as Algeria, Ghana, and Kenya highlight Turkey's efforts to expand its influence beyond its traditional borders. By establishing trade agreements and cooperation in various sectors, Turkey is forging pathways for mutual development and regional stability. Additionally, its proactive engagement through overseas cultural institutes like the Yunus Emre Institute, aimed at promoting Turkish culture and language, signals Turkey’s commitment to enhancing soft power in various regions.
These multifaceted relationships reinforce Turkey's strategic significance in the international arena as a key player in fostering economic ties, diplomatic relations, and cultural exchanges, emphasizing its commitment to playing a constructive role in regional and global affairs.