Historical Context of Saudi Foreign Relations
After World War II and during the Cold War, Saudi Arabia adopted an anti-Communist and anti-secular Arab-nationalist stance. This approach was largely aligned with the United States, which was the foremost anti-communist power at the time. The pivotal moment for the Kingdom occurred during the 1973 oil crisis when Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil exporters imposed an embargo against nations that supported Israel. This drastic move led to a massive increase in oil revenues, which Saudi Arabia utilized to elevate its status as the leading Islamic state. Significant funding was directed towards promoting Islam, especially the conservative Wahhabi interpretation. Advocates argue that this initiative helped to unify and purify the Islamic faith, while critics contend that it undermined and replaced regional Islamic traditions. The impact of Saudi aid in fostering Wahhabism can be observed in diverse regions, including Indonesia and the Maldives, where local, more moderate Islamic practices have come under pressure.
Proxy Wars and Cold War Dynamics
Saudi Arabia's oil policies played a crucial role in the proxy wars during the Cold War prior to the disintegration of Soviet Communism in the late 20th century. By financing the Afghan Mujahideen and even backing non-Muslim anti-communist factions, the Kingdom helped to fuel resistance against Soviet advances. Additionally, Saudi Arabia actively sought to stabilize oil prices throughout the 1980s, which deprived the Soviet Union of crucial revenue during America’s military expenditures surge, thereby impacting the Soviet economic stability during this period.
Shifting Leadership and Foreign Relations
The political landscape in Saudi Arabia began to shift significantly after King Fahd suffered a stroke in 1995, leading to Crown Prince Abdullah assuming control over foreign policy. Abdullah's leadership was marked by a desire to distance Saudi policies from the pro-Western stance that had typified King Fahd's reign. This era saw Abdullah fostering better regional ties, particularly with Iran, and addressing long-standing border disputes, such as those with Yemen. Despite maintaining a close, albeit strained, relationship with the U.S., Abdullah’s independent direction became increasingly evident. For instance, in 2003, Saudi Arabia withheld support for the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, a decision viewed by some as an effort to placate Islamist sentiments within the Kingdom.
U.S.-Saudi Dynamics and Threat Perceptions
Under King Abdullah's tenure from 2005 to 2015, Saudi Arabia adopted a more proactive foreign policy and demonstrated resistance to U.S. initiatives that lacked domestic approval. Distrust of Iran became a cornerstone of Saudi policy, as evidenced by leaked diplomatic cables that revealed Abdullah advocating for a U.S.-led strike on Iran to neutralize its influence. As the Kingdom’s influence sought a balance against Iran, it also dealt with the implications of homegrown terrorist groups. The involvement of prominent figures like Osama bin Laden, a Saudi national, and other hijackers from the Kingdom in the September 11 attacks strained U.S.-Saudi relations and raised questions regarding Saudi Arabia's role in the emergence of Islamist terrorism.
Regional Developments and Saudi Interventions
At the 2009 Arab League summit, Saudi Arabia expressed its intention to engage actively in regional initiatives, such as the proposed Arab Customs Union and an Arab common market. However, the dynamics shifted considerably during the early 2011 Arab Spring, with the Kingdom involving itself in regional politics by offering asylum to deposed leaders, such as Tunisia’s Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, and reaching out to Egypt’s Hosni Mubarak amid protests. Additionally, the Kingdom has engaged militarily in the Yemeni conflict since March 2015, viewing it as a vital front in its efforts to curtail influence from Iran and maintain its regional hegemony. This proactive approach to foreign relations underscores Saudi Arabia’s ongoing quest to navigate a complex landscape marked by internal challenges and external pressures.
Wahhabism and its Global Reach
Wahhabism, a strict interpretation of Sunni Islam originating from the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century, has been a significant ideological export of Saudi Arabia. Influenced by the country's government, various organizations like the Muslim World League and the World Association of Muslim Youth play critical roles in disseminating this ideology worldwide. These organizations have leveraged Saudi Arabia's vast financial resources and political influence to promote Wahhabism, often overshadowing more moderate interpretations of Islam.
Between the mid-1970s and 2002, Saudi Arabia allocated over $70 billion in overseas development aid. However, a substantial portion of these funds was reportedly directed toward propagating Wahhabist ideology rather than fostering diverse Islamic practices. In 2002, an article published by Ain Al-Yaqeen, a government-affiliated journal, revealed that Saudi-sponsored projects extended far beyond its borders, impacting non-Muslim countries across Europe, North and South America, Africa, Australia, and Asia. The initiatives included the establishment of 210 Islamic centers, the construction of 1,500 mosques, the establishment of 202 colleges, and the construction of nearly 2,000 schools, further entrenching Wahhabism in various global contexts. Notably, the House of Saud has inaugurated 1,359 mosques in Europe alone, emphasizing their commitment to promoting this particular brand of Islam internationally.
In recent years, the geopolitical dynamics surrounding Islam have shifted dramatically. A contentious example surfaced in February 2019 when Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman expressed support for China's controversial policies in Xinjiang, where the Chinese government has been accused of detaining up to 2 million Muslims in what have been described as concentration camps. The Crown Prince stated that "China has the right to carry out anti-terrorism and de-extremification work for its national security," highlighting a complex intersection of national interests and religious affiliations. Reports of abuse and torture within these camps have drawn international condemnation, making Saudi Arabia's stance particularly controversial given its influence in the Muslim world. This situation underscores the intricate balance the kingdom seeks to maintain between its ideological commitments and its strategic partnerships on the global stage.
Overview of Saudi Arabia's Diplomatic Relations
Saudi Arabia, as a key player in global politics and a prominent member of the Arab world, maintains a wide array of diplomatic relations with various nations. As of now, the Kingdom enjoys formal diplomatic ties with numerous countries across different continents, which facilitate trade, cultural exchange, and political cooperation.
Countries Lacking Diplomatic Relations
Despite its extensive network of diplomatic engagements, Saudi Arabia does not maintain formal diplomatic relations with five specific United Nations member states. This lack of official ties can be attributed to various geopolitical factors, historical context, and international strategies that influence the Kingdom's foreign policy decisions.
Nations in Oceania
In Oceania, Saudi Arabia does not engage diplomatically with two countries: the Marshall Islands and Papua New Guinea. The reasons for this could stem from both nations' relatively small geopolitical influence and their limited interactions with Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries.
Nations in Asia
In Asia, the situation is more complex, as Saudi Arabia finds itself without diplomatic relations with three nations: Bhutan, Israel, and North Korea. Each of these countries poses unique challenges and considerations for Saudi foreign policy. Bhutan, while a peaceful nation, has a foreign policy that prioritizes maintaining its independence and neutrality, which may not align with Saudi interests. Furthermore, the Kingdom's long-standing stance on the Palestinian issue contributes to its lack of formal ties with Israel, despite recent shifts in regional dynamics. Lastly, North Korea's contentious nuclear ambitions and its isolationist policies have led to a lack of diplomatic engagement with Saudi Arabia.
Conclusion
Overall, while Saudi Arabia maintains robust relationships with numerous countries globally, it remains selective in its diplomatic engagements, particularly with specific states in Oceania and Asia. Analyzing the reasons behind these choices sheds light on the complexities of international relations within which Saudi Arabia operates, and highlights the significant geopolitical factors that influence its foreign policy direction.
Controversial Reputation
Saudi Arabia's reputation in the West has always been tinged with controversy, primarily stemming from its human rights record and its significant involvement in the ongoing civil war in Yemen. The Kingdom's attempts to manage its international image have been strategic, focusing heavily on public relations efforts in influential nations like the United Kingdom and the United States. Notably, Lina Khatib, the head of the Middle East and North Africa Programme at Chatham House, noted that since 2016, Saudi Arabia has engaged in a comprehensive PR campaign directed primarily at British and American audiences. This campaign has utilized English-language content and advertisements that frame Mohammed bin Salman as a reformist leader, attempting to reshape perceptions of the Kingdom amid substantial criticism.
High-profile incidents, however, have marred these public relations efforts. The disappearance and alleged murder of journalist Jamal Khashoggi in 2018 sparked international outrage and led to widespread scrutiny of the Saudi regime. Following Khashoggi's death, prominent figures, including US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and UK Foreign Office representatives, called for transparency and accountability from the Saudi government, highlighting the seriousness of the allegations surrounding his disappearance. Leaders in Europe, including France and Germany, also expressed their concerns, leading Germany to halt arms sales to Saudi Arabia and prompting the European Parliament to consider imposing an EU-wide arms embargo against the Kingdom.
Responses from PR firms and media relationships have also shifted in the wake of the Khashoggi incident. While firms like Consulum, previously engaged in communication programs with the Saudi government, distanced themselves after the controversy, other organizations like Freud Communications severed ties altogether. Notably, some media companies that had previously collaborated with the Saudi state to enhance its image found themselves reevaluating their relationships. The Saudi Research and Marketing Group (SRMG) has continued to pursue connections with international media, raising concerns regarding editorial integrity, particularly after signing partnerships to launch foreign-language websites in the Middle East. The connection of SRMG with organizations like the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change further illustrates the complex network of influence that Saudi Arabia seeks to maintain on an international scale.
Engagement with US Lobbying
Saudi Arabia has legalized its lobbying efforts in the United States as part of its broader strategy to maintain and enhance bilateral relations, particularly in the face of changing political dynamics. Notably, ahead of the inauguration of President Joe Biden, the Saudi Embassy in Washington, D.C., retained the services of Off Hill Strategies, a PR firm that included a former lobbyist from the Heritage Foundation. This engagement, worth $25,000 a month, aimed to facilitate legislative advocacy and enhance congressional outreach during a critical transitional period. This move reflects a keen awareness in Saudi Arabia of the potential shift in US foreign policy under a Biden administration, especially after the President's repeated criticism of Riyadh, branding the country a “pariah” for its human rights abuses and military actions in Yemen.
As discussions continue regarding arms sales and Saudi Arabia's human rights record, the Kingdom faces an uphill battle in reshaping its image. Public relations campaigns designed to promote initiatives like Vision 2030, spearheaded by Mohammed bin Salman, are complicated by ongoing geopolitical tensions and internal criticisms about the regime's practices. While the Saudi regime attempts to navigate the dual pressures of promoting economic reform and overcoming a tarnished image, its success will largely depend on its ability to address the genuine concerns of human rights advocates and the implications of its foreign policy on regional stability.
International Organization Participation
Saudi Arabia actively participates in a wide range of international organizations, underscoring its commitment to global diplomacy and multilateral cooperation. Among the prominent organizations it is a member of are the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (ABEDA), African Development Bank (AfDB), Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD), Arab League (AL), and International Monetary Fund (IMF), among others. Saudi Arabia's involvement in these organizations reflects its strategic interests in promoting economic development, stability, and cooperation throughout both the Arab region and the broader international community. Additionally, its member status in groups such as the G-20 and the G-77 indicates its influence in shaping global economic policy and addressing challenges that affect both developing and developed nations.
Saudi Arabia’s extensive participation also includes regional efforts, demonstrated through its membership in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). The GCC aims to foster cooperation among Gulf Arab states in various sectors, including economics and security, while the OIC focuses on promoting Muslim solidarity and addressing issues affecting the Islamic world. Such memberships enhance Saudi Arabia's role as a key player in regional affairs, particularly in addressing political conflicts and economic challenges that arise within the Arab and Muslim world.
Bilateral Relations with Other Nations
Saudi Arabia has established formal diplomatic relations with numerous countries over the years, showcasing its global outreach and engagement in international diplomacy. For instance, it has maintained diplomatic relations with Russia since 1926, with France shortly thereafter, and with the United Kingdom starting in 1927. These long-standing relationships have undergone varying degrees of evolution, influenced by shifts in global politics, economic ties, and regional conflicts. Saudi Arabia’s relations with countries such as the United States have historically been characterized by strategic alignment, particularly in defense and energy sectors, while being tested by geopolitical events, including the evolving nature of terrorism and regional power dynamics.
Recent developments indicate a commitment to strengthening relationships further, as seen in the burgeoning ties with nations such as China and India. These relationships are driven by mutual interests, such as energy security and economic cooperation, evidenced by Saudi oil exports to China and significant investments in Indian infrastructure projects. Furthermore, Saudi Arabia is keen on fostering relationships with neighboring Islamic nations, as highlighted by its diplomatic engagements with Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey, as well as support for Palestine, despite ongoing challenges caused by sectarian divides and regional power struggles.
Challenges and Future Directions
Saudi Arabia's diplomatic landscape is not without complexities, particularly as it navigates regional tensions, such as those with Iran and ongoing conflicts in places like Yemen and Syria. The proxy conflict with Iran has historically strained relations, stemming from ideological differences and competition for influence in the region. Additionally, complex relationships with Western nations, especially in light of human rights issues and terrorism, continue to challenge Saudi Arabia's pursuit of an assertive foreign policy.
Future diplomatic efforts will likely focus on solidifying alliances and addressing international issues that resonate at both regional and global levels. This includes tackling challenges related to climate change, economic diversification through its Vision 2030 initiative, and maintaining stability in an increasingly volatile Middle East. As Saudi Arabia seeks to enhance its role on the world stage, its capacity for diplomatic engagement will play a pivotal role in shaping its future relations with both neighboring and distant nations.