Formation of The Inquiry and Council on Foreign Relations
In September 1917, in the aftermath of World War I, President Woodrow Wilson initiated an academic endeavor known as "The Inquiry." This working fellowship consisted of approximately 150 scholars, with the primary goal of providing Wilson with insights and options for the postwar world, specifically in light of a potential defeat of Germany. Directed by Wilson's close confidant, "Colonel" Edward M. House, and supplemented by Walter Lippmann, who served as Head of Research, this team convened to devise a comprehensive strategy for a stable postwar environment. Their work culminated in over 2,000 detailed documents that analyzed global political, social, and economic conditions, laying the groundwork for Wilson's renowned Fourteen Points—a visionary proposal for lasting peace following the conflict. The scholars' expertise and intensive research directly influenced the peace discussions held at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, where their perspectives were sought after and integrated into the discourse.
During the Paris Peace Conference, a pivotal meeting took place on May 30, 1919, at the Hotel Majestic, where a coalition of British and American diplomats and scholars convened to discuss the formation of an international organization. This meeting resulted in the establishment of the Institute of International Affairs, intended for the exchange of ideas between the two nations. However, differing societal attitudes towards internationalism posed challenges in the United States, leading to the creation of separate entities. The British delegates established the Royal Institute of International Affairs, commonly known as Chatham House, while American scholars shifted their focus to the Council on Foreign Relations. This council rose from discreet meetings originally held in New York City under Elihu Root, a distinguished corporate lawyer and former Secretary of State, who aimed to unite influential figures from various sectors, including business and academia, to guide American foreign policy.
Early Development and Expansion
The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) was officially incorporated on July 29, 1921. Its establishment was pivotal for coupling the fervor of internationalism with the pragmatism of business interests in the post-war landscape. The founding members included notable figures such as Elihu Root, who served as the first honorary president, along with John W. Davis as the first elected president. Additionally, Paul D. Cravath assumed the role of vice-president, while Edwin F. Gay served as secretary-treasurer. As the Council sought to become more influential, they recognized the necessity of establishing a credible voice in foreign affairs, leading to the launch of the magazine Foreign Affairs in September 1922, which Gay spearheaded. This publication would soon acquire a reputation for being the preeminent American review on international relations, providing critical insights and analyses on geopolitical issues.
The 1930s marked a period of increased financial backing for the CFR, particularly from philanthropic institutions such as the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation. By 1938, these foundations supported the formation of Committees on Foreign Relations across the United States, which aimed to engage local leaders and facilitate dialogue about foreign policy. This initiative was significant, as local committees acted as conduits for shaping public opinion, thereby ensuring a broader acceptance of the Council's objectives within the community and influencing policymakers. Furthermore, these committees established platforms through which the CFR could gauge public sentiment and potentially reshape discussions surrounding foreign policy in a time of growing isolationist sentiment in America.
Impact During World War II
The advent of World War II greatly elevated the profile of the Council on Foreign Relations within U.S. government circles, particularly the State Department. The Council established the confidential War and Peace Studies, a project funded entirely by the Rockefeller Foundation. The sensitivity of this initiative was underscored by the fact that only a select group of CFR members were privy to the group's activities, with the majority unaware of its existence. This specialized study was intricately designed with four essential focus areas: economic and financial aspects, security and armaments, territorial considerations, and political dynamics. Notably, the security and armaments division found leadership under Allen Welsh Dulles, who later emerged as a prominent figure within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Throughout the war, the CFR produced a staggering 682 classified memoranda, distributed to key government departments, providing strategic insights on pressing wartime issues and enhancing the influence of the Council in shaping U.S. foreign policy during a crucial period of global instability.
Cold War Era: The Council on Foreign Relations' Influence
The period from 1945 to 1979 marked a significant era in U.S. foreign policy, heavily influenced by members of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR). A critical analysis of government officials between 1945 and 1972 revealed that over half of the 502 surveyed were CFR members. This included substantial proportions of key foreign policy positions during various administrations, with 40% of Eisenhower's top officials affiliated with the Council, 42% under Truman, and rising to 57% during Johnson's administration. This growing connection highlights the Council's increasing sway over U.S. diplomatic strategies during a time of global tension and transformation.
One of the most pivotal moments came in 1947 when George Kennan, a CFR study group member, published the influential piece "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in Foreign Affairs. This article introduced the policy of "containment," which aimed to prevent the spread of Soviet communism and shaped U.S. foreign policy for the subsequent decades. Kennan later reflected that he never believed the Soviets wished to attack the U.S., a perspective that initially had not been conveyed in his work. The CFR's capacity to shape foreign policy extended beyond containment, as it also played a substantial role in the development of the Marshall Plan and the formation of NATO, demonstrating its overarching influence.
Eisenhower himself was deeply involved with the CFR, leading a study group while serving as the president of Columbia University. This engagement aided in his eventual presidential campaign, bolstered by a supportive initiative called "Americans for Eisenhower." The influence of the CFR was palpable in his administration, most notably through John Foster Dulles, his Secretary of State. Dulles articulated a new foreign policy approach emphasizing "massive retaliatory power" against communist aggression, which resonated with the Council's strategic frameworks. The Council also launched significant projects, including one led by Henry Kissinger, whose work on nuclear and foreign policy culminated in a bestselling book in 1957, further solidifying his national prominence.
Additionally, the CFR was instrumental in European integration initiatives, notably the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Advocating for the ECSC's establishment provided a foundation for increased collaboration between European nations, thus promoting economic interdependence to counteract communism. Within the context of colonial conflicts, a notable report from CFR's William Henderson in 1953 suggested the potential for a U.S. relationship with Ho Chi Minh—a perspective that was set aside for a more anti-communist approach, ultimately leading the U.S. into the Vietnam War.
As the Vietnam War escalated, it fostered divisions within the CFR. Noted anti-war factions opposed the appointment of William Bundy to lead Foreign Affairs due to his prior affiliations with the hawkish policies of the U.S. military and intelligence, culminating in a broader debate over moral accountability in foreign engagements. The internal discord within the Council underscored the growing public and professional scrutiny of Cold War policies amidst a changing cultural landscape.
The culmination of CFR's influence came to a head in 1979, when David Rockefeller, alongside key figures like Kissinger, played a controversial role in aiding the admission of the exiled Shah of Iran into the U.S. for medical treatment. This decision directly triggered the Iran hostage crisis, drawing intense media attention and criticism, especially from The New York Times. In his reflections, President Jimmy Carter highlighted the collective efforts of Rockefeller and others to navigate this sensitive diplomatic issue, showcasing how the CFR's connections extended deep into the corridors of power even during crises. This era not only showcases the CFR's significance but also illuminates the intricate relationships between policy-making, international relations, and historical events.
Reena Ninan is a notable figure in contemporary public discourse, particularly recognized for her involvement with influential organizations such as the Atlantic Council, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR). These institutions play pivotal roles in shaping policy discussions and advancing strategic insights across a variety of global issues, from international relations to economic development.
Her tenure at these esteemed organizations has equipped Ninan with a wealth of knowledge and expertise, particularly in the realms of international politics and public policy. The Atlantic Council, for instance, is known for its focus on promoting constructive leadership and engagement in international affairs, while the Rockefeller Foundation emphasizes broadening access to opportunity and improving the well-being of humanity. The Council on Foreign Relations, with its deep commitment to fostering understanding of foreign policy and global affairs, is especially influential in shaping the dialogue among policymakers and the public.
Currently, Ninan presides over public forums, where she facilitates discussions that delve into pressing issues affecting national and international landscapes. Such forums are crucial as they provide a platform for diverse perspectives, encouraging informed debate and engagement among audience members. Through her role, Ninan not only contributes to the discourse but also inspires the next generation of leaders by emphasizing the importance of public engagement and informed dialogue in navigating complex global challenges. Her work is emblematic of the critical role that well-informed public discussions play in fostering a more engaged and enlightened citizenry.
Membership Structures
The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) categorizes its membership into two primary types: life membership and term membership. Life membership is a permanent status conferred upon candidates who demonstrate exceptional qualifications and commitment to the field of foreign policy. In contrast, term membership spans five years and is restricted to individuals aged between 30 and 36. This specific age limitation aims to foster a vibrant community of emerging leaders in international relations. Eligibility for both membership types is confined to U.S. citizens, whether native-born or naturalized, along with permanent residents pursuing U.S. citizenship. To attain life membership, candidates must undergo a nomination process involving one member's written endorsement, complemented by the support of at least three additional members. Notably, visiting fellows are prohibited from applying for membership until they have successfully concluded their fellowship tenure, ensuring that their focus remains on their research and contributions during their time at CFR.
Corporate membership at the CFR features a tiered structure, comprising Associates, Affiliates, the President's Circle, and Founders. This structure not only allows corporations to engage meaningfully with global affairs but also provides their executive members with invaluable opportunities to learn from high-profile speakers, including heads of state, industry leaders, and U.S. officials. Members within the President's Circle, as well as those at premium membership levels, receive exclusive invitations to intimate dinners and receptions with senior government officials and influential world figures. Such engagements are instrumental in fostering connections and discussions around pivotal international issues and policies.
To nurture the next generation of leaders in the sphere of international relations, CFR has initiated the Young Professionals Briefing Series, specifically tailored for young individuals eager to understand and impact global policy discourse. This program not only serves as a gateway to term membership but also enriches participants’ perspectives on contemporary geopolitical challenges. Historically, it's essential to recognize that the CFR underwent significant transformations concerning inclusivity; women were excluded from membership until the 1960s. The gradual change in membership policies has contributed to a more diverse and comprehensive dialogue within the organization, reflecting the complex realities of global relations today.
By structure, the CFR consistently aims to cultivate a knowledgeable and engaged community equipped to tackle the multifaceted challenges of foreign policy. Through various membership pathways and engaging programs, the Council remains committed to fostering discourse that shapes the future of international relations.
Board Members of CFR
As of 2024, the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) is guided by a distinguished board of directors, each bringing a wealth of knowledge and experience in various sectors including finance, politics, academia, and media. David M. Rubenstein serves as the chairman of the board, and he is a prominent figure in finance as the cofounder and co-CEO of The Carlyle Group, a global investment firm. Beyond his role at CFR, Rubenstein has made significant contributions to cultural and educational institutions, evidenced by his positions as a regent of the Smithsonian Institution and chairman of the board at Duke University. His involvement with the Brookings Institution and ownership of the Baltimore Orioles further illustrates his influence and leadership across multiple domains.
The vice chairmanship is held by Blair Effron and Jami Miscik, both of whom are renowned figures in finance and geopolitical advisory. Effron is the cofounder of Centerview Partners, a leading independent investment banking firm, while Miscik, who has an extensive background in global risk assessment, holds senior advisory roles at Lazard and Barclays Capital. Interestingly, her previous experience includes serving as the chief executive officer of Kissinger Associates, where she engaged in high-level advisory roles on international relations.
Michael Froman currently serves as the president of CFR. His extensive background includes being the former U.S. trade representative during the Obama administration, where he played a crucial role in trade policy. This depth of experience is essential for CFR's mission to address critical global issues. Other board members, such as Afsaneh Mashayekhi Beschloss, the founder and CEO of RockCreek, and Margaret Brennan, the chief foreign affairs correspondent for CBS News, add diverse perspectives ranging from finance to media and foreign affairs.
Several members have held significant government positions, enhancing CFR’s acumen in navigating complex international issues. Sylvia Mathews Burwell, former Secretary of Health and Human Services, and Janet Napolitano, who once oversaw national security as the Homeland Security Secretary, provide critical insights into governmental operations and crisis management. Additionally, William Hurd, a former U.S. representative and CIA officer, brings his operational experiences in national security and intelligence to the board.
The expertise of board members extends into other important sectors. For instance, James Manyika from Google focuses on the intersection of technology and society, emphasizing the increasing importance of digital innovation on global affairs. Laurene Powell Jobs, founder of the Emerson Collective, brings a philanthropic perspective on social issues. Furthermore, the broad range of leadership, from Michelle Flournoy's defense and national security expertise to Amy Zegart’s academic insights, highlights CFR's commitment to fostering informed debate on international relations.
In summary, CFR's board of directors comprises a profoundly diverse and accomplished group of individuals. Their combined experiences in business, government, media, and academia position CFR to effectively address contemporary global challenges, making substantial contributions to policy discussions and fostering a deeper understanding of international affairs.
Charity Ratings and Financial Accountability
The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), a prominent think tank and non-profit organization focused on U.S. foreign policy and international affairs, has demonstrated a commitment to financial integrity and transparency. In fiscal year 2016, the organization received a commendable three-star rating out of a possible four from Charity Navigator. This evaluation reflects an analysis of the council’s financial data, combined with assessments of its accountability and transparency practices. Such ratings are vital as they help potential donors gauge the effectiveness and reliability of charitable organizations.
Fast forward to fiscal year 2023, and the CFR has improved its standing significantly, achieving a four-star rating from Charity Navigator with an impressive score of 98 percent. This enhancement in rating underscores the council's dedication to financial responsibility and good governance, aligning with best practices in the non-profit sector. A four-star rating indicates that CFR excels in areas such as fundraising efficiency, financial health, program expenses, and transparency, which collectively signal to donors and stakeholders that their contributions are managed effectively and are likely to have a meaningful impact.
Moreover, having a solid rating from a respected evaluator like Charity Navigator is not only an accolade but serves a crucial role in fostering trust among supporters. As the landscape of charity and philanthropy continues to evolve, public scrutiny around accountability increases. Organizations such as CFR are keenly aware that maintaining high standards in transparency and performance is essential for sustaining donor confidence and support. This improved rating not only reflects their current operational excellence but also stands as a testament to the effective strategies they have implemented since 2016.
Reception of Council on Foreign Relations
The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) is often viewed as a pivotal institution within the United States, wherein Richard Harwood aptly characterized its membership as "the nearest thing we have to a ruling establishment in the United States." This portrayal highlights the influence and authority wielded by CFR members, who often occupy key positions in government, industry, academia, and the media. Their collective expertise and network substantially shape public discourse and policy-making on matters of foreign affairs, thus underscoring the council's significant role in American diplomatic and international strategy.
In 2019, CFR faced considerable scrutiny following its acceptance of a substantial donation from Ukrainian-born billionaire Len Blavatnik, known for his close connections to the Kremlin and Russian President Vladimir Putin. The controversy ignited internal dissent within CFR, compelling a group of fifty-five international relations scholars and Russia experts to express their concerns to the CFR's board and President Richard N. Haass. Their open letter articulated a deep apprehension that Blavatnik's financial contributions were less about philanthropy and more about enhancing his influence within Western political spheres using funds associated with the Kremlin. The scholars framed this gesture as part of a larger pattern, suggesting that Blavatnik's efforts were aimed at “laundering” his reputation in Western society while simultaneously garnering favor with influential political circles.
The backlash against CFR’s decision to accept Blavatnik's donation reflects broader concerns about financial influence in academic and policy-making institutions. Critics argue that such contributions risk compromising the integrity of these organizations and can obfuscate the motives of benefactors with possible ulterior intentions. This episode has sparked renewed debate about the ethical dimensions of philanthropy in international relations, especially as geopolitics becomes increasingly intertwined with financial networks. As organizations like CFR grapple with the implications of such donations, the events surrounding Blavatnik also illustrate the delicate balancing act they must maintain between fundraising and preserving their credibility and independence in an ever-evolving global landscape.
Foreign Affairs
The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) publishes an influential magazine, Foreign Affairs, which serves as a platform for discussing significant issues in international relations and global policy. This publication is known for featuring articles authored by top scholars, policymakers, and practitioners who analyze the complexities of global affairs and provide insights into the various dynamics shaping international relations. It plays a critical role in informing both public discourse and policymaking.
In addition to its magazine, the CFR is engaged in establishing independent task forces that convene subject matter experts from various fields. These task forces are instrumental in producing comprehensive reports that not only offer analyses of pressing foreign policy issues but also provide actionable recommendations for policymakers. Over the years, CFR has sponsored more than fifty of these reports, addressing diverse topics such as climate change, international trade, and national security. One notable example is the Independent Task Force on the Future of North America, which released its report, Building a North American Community, in May 2005. This report emphasized the importance of collaborative approaches to enhance economic integration and security cooperation among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
The Council is also responsible for producing essential annual publications like The United States in World Affairs and the Political Handbook of the World. The United States in World Affairs compiles contributions from various experts on U.S. foreign policy, providing a yearly overview that helps readers understand the country's role in global dynamics. Meanwhile, the Political Handbook of the World offers a comprehensive resource on the political systems, parties, and leaders of countries around the globe. Together, these publications contribute significantly to the discourse surrounding international relations and the ever-evolving geopolitical landscape.
Books by the Council on Foreign Relations encompass a diverse range of topics related to American foreign policy and international relations, reflecting the institution's central role in examining global affairs. One of the early works from this esteemed organization is "Mobilizing Civilian America" by Harold J. Tobin and Percy W. Bidwell, published in 1940. This book delves into the critical need for civilian participation in national defense strategies during a turbulent period in global history, advocating for an engaged citizenry in support of foreign policy objectives.
Following the onset of World War II, Ruth Savord's 1942 publication, "American Agencies Interested in International Affairs," shines a light on various U.S. organizations working to shape international relations. The book emphasizes the necessity of inter-agency collaboration and underscores how different sectors of American society can unite to pursue common global interests, particularly during moments of crisis.
In the context of post-war Asia, A. Doak Barnett’s 1960 work, "Communist China and Asia: Challenge To American Policy," investigates the impact of the Chinese Communist Party's rise on U.S. foreign policy. This book addresses the emerging tensions in East Asia and evaluates how these geopolitical shifts challenge American interests and alliances in the region, providing insights that resonate with ongoing discussions about U.S.-China relations.
"Two Hundred Years of American Foreign Policy," edited by William P. Bundy in 1977, offers a comprehensive examination of the evolution of American foreign policy across centuries. The book provides historical context and analysis, helping readers understand how decisions made in the past influence current foreign policy debates, making it an essential resource for policymakers and scholars alike.
The conclusion of the Cold War and its repercussions for U.S. engagement in Africa are the focal points of Michael Clough's book "Free at Last? U.S. Policy Toward Africa and the End of the Cold War," published in 1991. Clough emphasizes not only the political and economic implications of shifting global dynamics but also the moral responsibilities of the U.S. as a leader in international human rights initiatives.
In "The Rise of Nations in the Soviet Union: American Foreign Policy and the Disintegration of the USSR," published in the same year, Michael Mandelbaum analyzes the reasons behind the Soviet Union’s collapse. This work investigates American responses and strategic choices that played a role in this historic transition, offering valuable lessons on diplomatic engagement during periods of systemic change.
Gidon Gottlieb's "Nation Against State: A New Approach to Ethnic Conflicts and the Decline of Sovereignty," published in 1993, explores the complexities of ethnic conflicts in the post-Cold War era. Gottlieb’s analysis is critical in understanding how shifts in sovereignty and identity politics challenge traditional notions of the nation-state, offering a fresh perspective on contemporary international relations.
Finally, the most recent addition to this collection is "God, Guns, Sedition: Far Right Terrorism in America," authored by Bruce Hoffman and Jacob Ware, published in 2024. This timely book addresses the rise of far-right extremism and its implications for national security and American society. By analyzing contemporary threats, the authors provide crucial insights into domestic terrorism, encouraging an informed dialogue on maintaining security while upholding civil liberties.
Collectively, these works reflect the Council on Foreign Relations' mission to foster a deeper understanding of foreign policy issues, encouraging informed public discourse on the complexities of international relations. Each publication contributes to an evolving narrative that connects historical context with modern challenges, ensuring that the lessons from the past continue to inform the path forward.
Confronting Reality in Cyberspace
The evolving dynamics of global cyberspace have prompted critical reassessments of U.S. foreign policy, particularly in regards to cyber security, digital trade, and the foundational principle of online freedom. The report titled "Confronting Reality in Cyberspace: Foreign Policy for a Fragmented Internet" presents an urgent call for a strategic overhaul of these policies. It highlights the inadequacy of the current approach, which strongly advocates for a free and open internet, yet fails to effectively address the realities of the increasingly fragmented and contested digital landscape.
In a world where countries are more inclined to assert control over digital spaces, the need for a nuanced policy that recognizes the complexities of national interests, cybersecurity threats, and the influence of authoritarian regimes becomes evident. The report argues that a reevaluation is necessary to bolster the U.S. position in international dialogue and cooperation regarding cyber norms, data governance, and the protection of intellectual property rights. A more adaptive and realistic framework is essential to navigate the intricate balance between promoting democratic values online and recognizing the geopolitical threats that persist in cyberspace.
US-Taiwan Relations in a New Era
Amidst this evolving cyber environment, the report on US-Taiwan relations emerges as crucial in the context of a more assertive China. The Independent Task Force Report No. 81, co-chaired by former Director of National Intelligence Susan M. Gordon and former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Michael G. Mullen, underscores the significance of Taiwan as a critical ally in the Pacific. It outlines various dimensions of U.S.-Taiwan relations that need enhancement, particularly in areas of security cooperation, economic ties, and diplomatic engagement.
China's growing influence and military assertiveness pose a stark challenge not only to Taiwan but also to U.S. interests in the Indo-Pacific region. The report advocates for a robust partnership that would include increased arms sales and military training to Taiwan, aimed at strengthening its self-defense capabilities against potential aggression. Additionally, economic initiatives that deepen trade relations and foster technological collaboration are encouraged to counter China's economic coercion.
In this new era of competition, the strategic alignment between the U.S. and Taiwan can serve as a cornerstone for maintaining stability and ensuring a democratic presence in the region. The report emphasizes the importance of a united front among democratic nations to address challenges posed by authoritarian regimes, highlighting that the commitment to Taiwan's defense is not solely a regional concern but a key component of broader U.S. foreign policy.