Understanding Political Parties

Political parties are groups of people who come together based on similar political ideas and beliefs. Their goal is to gain political power through legal means, and they work towards what they believe is in the best interest of the nation. In the context of India, political parties play a crucial role in shaping policies and governance.

There are four main types of political parties found in modern democracies. First are reactionary parties, which support the idea of keeping traditional social, economic, and political structures, resisting any kind of change. Next are conservative parties, which prefer to maintain the current state of affairs and are not keen on significant changes to the system. The third type is liberal parties, aiming to reform existing systems to improve society and make it more progressive. Finally, we have radical parties, which seek to completely change the current system by overthrowing existing structures to establish a new political order.

Political scientists often categorize these parties based on their ideologies and positions on the political spectrum. Radical parties are generally viewed as leftist, advocating for significant changes, whereas liberal parties are considered centrist, promoting moderate reforms. On the right side of the spectrum, we find reactionary and conservative parties, which favor maintaining existing traditions and status quo.

In India, for example, the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) [CPI(M)] represent leftist ideologies. The Indian National Congress is often seen as a centrist party, while the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is recognized as a rightist party. This classification helps citizens understand the political landscape and where different parties stand on various issues.

Globally, there are three main types of party systems that define how political parties operate. The one-party system features a single political party that holds power without allowing any opposition. This was common in former communist countries, like the Soviet Union. In contrast, the two-party system has two dominant parties competing for power, as seen in countries like the United States and Great Britain. Lastly, the multi-party system exists when multiple parties operate simultaneously, which can be seen in countries like France, Switzerland, and Italy.

In India, the political framework allows for a multi-party system, which is detailed in the Constitution. Articles 19(1)(c) guarantees the right to form associations or unions, providing citizens the freedom to create and join political parties. This diversity enriches the democratic process by giving voters more choices and enabling different viewpoints to be represented in the political arena.

By understanding the different types of political parties and their roles in a democratic society, citizens can make informed decisions during elections and participate meaningfully in governance. Political parties not only reflect the ideologies they represent but also shape the future of the nation through their policies and actions.

The Party System in India

India has a unique political landscape shaped by its diverse culture and size. The party system in the country has several important features that define how politics operates.

One of the most significant aspects of the Indian party system is its multi-party system. Due to India’s vastness, the variety of its society, and the practice of universal adult suffrage (the right for all adults to vote), multiple political parties have emerged. In fact, India is known to have the largest number of political parties in the world. These parties span a broad spectrum, including left-wing, centrist, and right-wing parties, as well as communal and non-communal groups. A common result of this multi-party framework is the occurrence of hung Parliaments and hung assemblies, leading to coalition governments.

Despite the multi-party nature, India has experienced a one-dominant party system for a significant period. The Indian National Congress (INC) has been at the forefront, effectively managing the political landscape for many years. Political analyst Rajni Kothari referred to this situation as the "Congress system," noting its dominance. However, since 1967, regional parties and other national parties, like the Janata Party in 1977, Janata Dal in 1989, and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1991, have risen, contributing to a more competitive political environment.

Another essential characteristic is the lack of a clear ideology among most parties. Apart from the BJP and the two major communist parties in India — the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPM — most parties share vague ideological positions. They broadly align on principles like democracy, secularism, and socialism. Ultimately, the central aim of parties often seems to be gaining power rather than adhering to a strong ideology. As a result, political issues take precedence over firm ideological commitments.

The phenomenon of personality cults is also notable in Indian politics. Many parties revolve around strong personalities, making leaders more significant than their political parties or ideologies. This leads to a situation where parties are recognized more by their leaders than their political manifestos or visions. Thus, many say that there are more prominent political personalities than political parties in India.

Unlike many Western political systems, Indian parties often form based on traditional factors such as religion, caste, language, or regional identity. This means that many parties focus on communal or sectional interests, which can sometimes compromise the broader public good.

In recent years, there has been a marked increase in regional parties. These parties initially operated mainly in state politics but have gained influence on the national stage, especially due to coalition governments. Their growth reflects the need for representation of regional interests within India's larger national framework.

The Indian party system is also marked by factions and defections. Internal disagreements within parties often lead to splits, with politicians sometimes leaving their original parties to join others or create new ones. This practice increased after the fourth general elections in 1967 and has contributed to political instability at both the central and state levels.

Lastly, there is a lack of effective opposition in Indian politics. A strong opposition is crucial for ensuring checks and balances in a parliamentary democracy, as it can hold the ruling party accountable and present itself as an alternative government. However, since the first general elections, a cohesive and organized national opposition has largely been absent. Opposition parties often struggle to maintain unity and frequently take positions that contradict one another, undermining their ability to function effectively and contribute positively to the governance and development of the country.

In summary, the party system in India is complex and shaped by many factors that reflect the nation's diversity and political dynamics. Understanding the features of this system, such as the multi-party nature and dominance by certain parties, is essential for grasping the challenges and opportunities within Indian politics. The Constitution of India, particularly Articles 19 and 21, which guarantee the right to freedom of speech and the right to life and personal liberty, play a pivotal role in enabling the political discourse that surrounds these parties.

Recognition of National and State Parties in India

In India, the Election Commission is the body responsible for registering political parties. It grants recognition to these parties as either national or state parties based on how well they perform in elections. Parties that do not achieve recognition are classified as registered-unrecognised parties. The recognition by the Election Commission allows parties to enjoy specific privileges, such as having a unique party symbol, the opportunity for political broadcasts on government radio and television channels, and access to electoral rolls, which are the lists of eligible voters.

Every national political party gets a unique symbol that can be used across the country. Similarly, state parties receive a symbol that is only for their use in the particular state or states where they are recognised. On the other hand, registered-unrecognised parties must choose their symbols from a set of ‘free symbols’ provided by the Election Commission. This classification helps voters identify the candidates and their parties during elections.

Conditions for Recognition as a National Party

To gain national party status, a party needs to meet at least one of the following criteria:

1. The party must secure six percent of the valid votes cast in four or more states during a general election to the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament) or to the legislative assembly, and also win at least four seats in the Lok Sabha from any state or states.

2. The party must win two percent of the total seats in the Lok Sabha during a general election, with candidates elected from at least three different states.

3. The party must be recognised as a state party in four states.

These requirements are set to ensure that national parties have a significant presence and support in multiple regions of the country.

Conditions for Recognition as a State Party

For a party to be recognised as a state party in a specific state, it must satisfy one of the following conditions:

1. It must receive six percent of the valid votes in the state during a general election to that state’s legislative assembly, and also win at least two seats in that assembly.

2. It should secure six percent of the valid votes in the state during a general election to the Lok Sabha and win at least one seat from that state.

3. The party must win at least three percent of the total seats in the state legislative assembly or a minimum of three seats, whichever is a greater number.

4. For every 25 seats allocated to the state in the Lok Sabha, if a party wins at least one seat (including any fractional numbers), it can gain recognition.

5. Finally, if the party secures eight percent of the total valid votes in the state during general elections to either the Lok Sabha or the state legislative assembly, it can be recognised as a state party.

The recognition landscape is dynamic, with the number of recognised national and state parties changing after each general election based on their electoral performance. Over the years, the political scene in India has evolved significantly. For instance, during the first Lok Sabha elections in 1952, there were 14 national parties and 39 state parties. By 2019, before the seventeenth Lok Sabha elections, the number of national parties had reduced to 7, while state parties had increased to 52.

The legal framework governing these recognitions can be found in the Representation of the People Act, 1951, which lays down the rules and conditions for the formation, registration, and recognition of political parties in India. This law ensures a systematic process for political parties to be identified and provides guidelines for their functioning in the democratic setup of the country.