Teachings, Interpretations, and Practices
Buddhism is a diverse religion comprising a wide array of traditions, beliefs, and spiritual practices rooted in the teachings of Gautama Buddha. The core tenet of these teachings revolves around the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment and the ultimate liberation from suffering, known as Nirvana. This state represents the complete cessation of duḥkha, a Pali term that encapsulates the inherent suffering, dissatisfaction, or pain that characterizes human existence. The path to Nirvana requires the practitioner to engage in self-reflection and moral living, wherein unwholesome actions—those that harm oneself or others—are eschewed. Specifically, violent actions and harmful thoughts are seen as unskilled (akusala) and directly counterproductive to spiritual development.
Buddha's teachings emphasize the importance of ethical conduct, particularly through the lens of the Noble Eightfold Path, which delineates the framework for achieving liberation. Right action (samyak-karmānta) forms a critical component of this path, instructing practitioners to cultivate moral integrity by refraining from acts that cause harm. This includes abstention from killing, stealing, and engaging in illicit sexual behavior, which are explicitly articulated in both the Chinese and Pali Canon. Furthermore, emphasis is placed on compassion and mercy towards all living beings, with the Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta illustrating how a person can refine their actions through righteous intent and ethical discipline.
The principles of non-violence (ahimsa) and compassion (karuna) are central to Buddhist ethics, as they promote a peaceful coexistence that nurtures spiritual growth. The Buddha’s teachings advocate for understanding and empathy in relation to others' suffering, promoting the idea that one's actions should be weighed against their potential to inflict pain or harm. This viewpoint is reinforced through various suttas, including the Ambalatthika-Rahulovada Sutta and the Dhammapada, where an acknowledgement of the interconnectedness of all beings is highlighted. The cultivation of loving-kindness (metta) extends beyond mere words; it is an active practice encouraging individuals to embody peace and compassion in both thought and deed.
As part of the ethical framework, the Five Precepts outline essential guidelines for lay followers. Among these is the commitment to abstain from killing, reflecting the fundamental belief that harming any sentient being undermines the pursuit of enlightenment. The Buddha articulated the dangers of violence, positing that it begets suffering, and he championed peaceful resolution as superior to conflict. This aspect of Buddhism is often seen as its pacifistic nature, while historical instances of violence associated with individuals or groups identifying as Buddhists tend to be viewed as deviations from core Buddhist teachings, often rooted more in socio-political factors than in religious doctrine.
Yet, interpretations of Buddhist teachings can vary, leading to a complex discourse on the role of violence in extreme circumstances. Some Mahayana scriptures suggest that actions considered harmful may be justified if they serve a greater good, like protecting innocents. This perspective allows for nuanced discussions about moral dilemmas, such as those raised by the Dalai Lama, who has framed his views on violence in the context of compassion and necessity. He has indicated that sometimes, forceful actions can align with the principle of non-violence if they are motivated by a sincere desire to safeguard life. This stance, while controversial, highlights the evolving understanding of what constitutes ethical behavior in response to immediate threats.
Moreover, Buddhism's relationship with self-directed violence—particularly in the form of ascetic practices or political protest—further complicates the dialogue around violence within the tradition. Historical instances like the self-immolations of Thích Quảng Đức during the Vietnam War serve as poignant examples of how deeply embedded the concepts of sacrifice and moral conviction can be within Buddhist practice. These narratives challenge simplistic interpretations of non-violence, urging a broader examination of intent, context, and ultimate motivation surrounding the actions of individuals and communities within the Buddhist framework. Ultimately, the teachings of Buddhism encourage continual reflection, introspection, and a commitment to peace and compassion, guiding followers through the intricate journey towards enlightenment.
The Role of the Sangha in Thailand's Political Landscape
Kittivuddho emerged as a significant figure within the intricate relationship between the Thai Sangha and the government, providing a unique perspective that reflects the ongoing interplay between Buddhism and politics in Thailand. The Thai Sangha, as the predominant religious organization, exerts considerable influence over the societal and moral framework of the nation. This bond signifies that when the government aligns itself with the Sangha's teachings and principles, it enhances its own legitimacy and authority. Conversely, the Sangha benefits from this partnership, reinforcing its status as a moral and ethical guide to a predominantly Buddhist population. This synergy fosters a climate where religious and state power interweave, influencing public perception and governmental actions.
Military Involvement and Buddhist Justifications
The events surrounding World War I illustrated the complexities of this relationship under King Rama VI. Despite Thailand's geographical detachment from the conflict, the King felt a moral obligation to support the Allied forces. His decision to send troops, although seen as premature and ill-fated due to their late arrival in the war, faced backlash from notable figures within the religious community, particularly Abbot Phra Thep Moli Sirichantoe. The Abbot's condemnation of militaristic approaches as "evil" ignited a theological debate that involved the Supreme Patriarch, who provided a counterpoint by framing the necessity of sacrifice, an integral aspect of Buddhist teachings, in the context of a leader's duty to protect their nation. He utilized Buddhist concepts to transform the notion of war from violence to a noble defense of one's homeland, effectively redefining acceptable violence in terms of ethical leadership.
Philosophical Shifts in the 1970s
Fast forward to the 1970s, Kittivuddho’s perspective during a period marked by growing communist sentiment and social upheaval echoed the justifications of violence seen during the era of King Rama VI. His controversial claim that killing communists is “not de-meritorius” displays a significant philosophical shift in the interpretation of Buddhist ethics regarding violence. This viewpoint emerged in the context of a student-led uprising in 1973 and the escalating fear of communism threatening Thailand’s traditional values and social order. Kittivuddho's rhetoric dehumanized his opponents by comparing them to demons rather than individuals, thus creating a narrative where violence against them could be framed as a necessary act of protection for the nation.
Nationalism and Buddhist Doctrine
This alignment of nationalism with Buddhist principles gained traction, suggesting that the act of killing could be subsumed under greater moral imperatives aimed at defending the "country, the religion, and the institution of monarchy." Kittivuddho's philosophy portrays a scenario where human life is secondary to larger national interests, cementing the idea that sacrifices made in the line of duty, even those involving violence, are virtuous if they serve a "greater good." Such manipulation of Buddhist teachings to sanction violence highlights an enduring tension within Thai Buddhism, revealing how interpretations can be adapted to suit contemporary socio-political needs.
The Ongoing Religious Tensions in the 2000s
As the 21st century progressed, the role of Buddhism in shaping the Thai state took on new dimensions amidst rising inter-religious tensions, particularly between Buddhists and local Muslim populations in southern Thailand. The designation of Buddhism as the state religion has largely marginalized other religious practices, creating a fraught environment marked by conflict and violence, which was especially pronounced in incidents like the 2004 assault on the Khru Se Mosque. As the military's actions against Malay Muslim citizens demonstrated, the intertwining of religious identity with state action can exacerbate societal divisions and complicate interfaith dialogue, possibly hindering efforts toward national unity and peace.
Ethnic Minorities and Religious Assimilation in Myanmar
In Myanmar, the history of military rule, particularly under the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) from 1988 to 2011, has been marked by severe oppression and aggressive campaigns aimed at assimilating ethnic minorities. The regime not only encouraged but often forcibly enacted the conversion of these groups to align with a vision of Burmese Buddhist nationalism. This ideology was leveraged to legitimize the military's contentious hold on power, intertwining elements of Buddhism with state-sanctioned authoritarianism. As part of this campaign, the SPDC sought to suppress ethnic identities in favor of a singular narrative that promoted a homogeneous national identity rooted in Buddhism.
The Saffron Revolution in 2007 signified a pivotal moment in Myanmar’s history, wherein widespread protests led by a coalition of students, political activists, and Buddhist monks emerged as a peaceful challenge to the regime's oppressive policies. The monks, seen as custodians of moral authority, played a crucial role in these protests, which aimed to address economic hardships and a lack of democratic reforms. Despite initially being tolerated by the government, the movement quickly faced a brutal crackdown, resulting in the deaths of numerous protesters and widespread human rights abuses. This period underscored the Buddhist monkhood's potential as a force for social change, yet it also foreshadowed the sectarian violence that would later arise in the country.
In the backdrop of these political upheavals, Myanmar became a breeding ground for hardline nationalism, particularly among certain factions of the Buddhist monkhood who became increasingly militant. The Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA), founded in 1992 by U Thuzana, is one of the earliest examples of this trend. In recent years, movements such as the 969 Movement have emerged, promoting anti-Islamic sentiments and mobilizing public sentiments against the Muslim minority, particularly the Rohingya. Violent clashes erupted starkly in June 2012, with more than 200 fatalities and the displacement of around 100,000 individuals. The roots of this violence, while often framed in a religious context, are also deeply entwined with economic factors and competition for resources.
The international response to the violence in Myanmar has been marked by shock and condemnation. Activists and human rights defenders have pointed to the complicity of the Burmese government and local authorities in inciting and facilitating the violence against Muslims. Reports have documented systematic efforts to displace Rohingya people and other Muslim communities, showcasing a targeted approach to instilling fear and ensuring compliance among minority groups. Incidents of violence, such as those in Meiktila, Lashio, and Mandalay highlight the continuing threat of intercommunal violence and the challenges of reconciliation in an increasingly polarized society.
Despite the turmoil, there remains a significant segment of Buddhist leaders advocating for peace and compassion. Figures such as the Dalai Lama and other prominent monks have spoken out against the violence, asserting that fundamental Buddhist teachings emphasize compassion, forgiveness, and dialogue. They argue that true adherence to Buddhist principles inherently rejects violence and nationalism. Maung Zarni, a human rights advocate, encapsulates this sentiment by stating that fundamentalism has no place within Buddhism, urging all practitioners to reflect on the teachings that transcend notions of national identity. As Myanmar grapples with its ethnic divisions and the legacy of its military history, the discourse around Buddhism's role in society continues to evolve, revealing the complexities of identity, faith, and resilience.
Historical Context of Ashoka's Reign
The reign of Emperor Ashoka, who ruled over the Indian subcontinent during the 3rd century BCE, is often regarded as a significant era in the history of Buddhism and Indian philosophy. Ashoka's support for Buddhism transformed it into one of the major religions in India. However, his interactions with other sects, especially the Ajivikas, have been subject to much debate among historians. The Ashokavadana, a text from the 3rd century CE, offers an account of a massacre involving the Ajivikas, a sect known for its ascetic practices and philosophical skepticism, suggesting that around 18,000 Ajivikas were killed for depicting a controversial image of the Buddha.
Controversial Accounts and Interpretations
While the Ashokavadana presents a vivid narrative of mass violence under Ashoka's orders, the reliability of this account is questioned by scholars. K. T. S. Sarao and Benimadhab Barua argue that the portrayal of Ashoka as a persecutor of rival sects is likely rooted in sectarian animosities of later periods rather than reflecting the historical reality of Ashoka's reign. These scholars suggest that the depiction of persecution was possibly exaggerated for political or religious purposes, indicating that such narratives were meant to elevate one sect over another at the expense of historical accuracy.
Artistic Developments and Symbolism
An important aspect of the aforementioned account is the claim regarding the representation of the Buddha. During Ashoka's time, the custom of portraying the Buddha in human form was not yet established; instead, the Buddha was symbolically represented through motifs like the lotus or the dharma wheel. This suggests that the criticism against Ajivikas in the Ashokavadana might be based on a misunderstanding or misrepresentation of artistic practices prevalent at that time. Furthermore, the conflation of Nirgranthas and Ajivikas within the text indicates the complex and often intertwined nature of various philosophical lineage and sectarian identities during this historical period.
Overall, while the Ashokavadana sheds light on the contentious relationship between different philosophical sects during Ashoka's rule, the complexities inherent in historical narratives require careful analysis to separate fact from interpretation influenced by later developments in religious history. The study of such accounts illustrates the dynamic interplay between politics, religion, and expression in ancient Indian society.
The Historical Context of Buddhism in Sri Lanka
Buddhism has a deeply rooted history in Sri Lanka that is intricately tied to the nation's identity, particularly among the Sinhalese population. This connection has significantly influenced the development of Sinhalese nationalism, with Buddhism becoming not just a religion but a cornerstone of cultural self-understanding. The resultant politicization of Buddhism has exacerbated ethnic tensions, contributing to enduring conflict, especially between the Sinhalese Buddhists and other ethnic groups, particularly the Tamil population.
The origins of religiously motivated violence can be traced back several decades, specifically to the harsh treatment and systemic discrimination against the Tamil community by the Sinhalese majority. In reaction to this suppression, the Tamils established the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), which fought for the autonomy of the North-East region of the island. The civil war, which lasted almost 30 years, resulted in an estimated 40,000 fatalities and left deep scars on the socio-political landscape of Sri Lanka. The conflict culminated in May 2009, when the Sri Lankan government decisively defeated the LTTE, resulting in the death of its leader, Velupillai Prabhakaran. In the aftermath, the demographic fabric of Sri Lanka was starkly defined: roughly 70% Sinhalese (predominantly Buddhist), about 10% Tamils (largely Hindus), and another 10% Muslims, marking a complex interplay of identities and tensions.
Rising Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict
Despite Sri Lanka's lack of a formally stated national language or religion, Buddhist nationalism has increasingly gained traction in response to perceived threats from the Muslim minority. This expansion of Buddhist nationalism has been spearheaded by organizations such as the Bodu Bala Sena (BBS), which operates under the leadership of Galagoda Aththe Gnanasara. The group's emergence reflects a broader cultural anxiety among Sinhalese Buddhists regarding the influence and growth of Islam in primarily Buddhist spaces.
This nationalist surge has resulted in overt acts of aggression against the Muslim community. Notably, on September 10, 2011, the destruction of a 300-year-old Muslim shrine in Anuradhapura by Buddhist monks was a significant early indicator of this hostility. This act occurred in plain view of law enforcement officials, who demonstrated a reluctance to intervene, signaling a troubling permissiveness towards inter-religious violence. Further escalating tensions, on April 20, 2012, approximately 2,000 Buddhists gathered to protest outside a mosque in Dambulla, leading to the mosque's forced relocation after threats of violence. These events showcased the BBS's increasingly aggressive form of discrimination, utilizing slogans and propaganda to foster anti-Muslim sentiments across Sri Lanka.
A Climate of Fear and Retaliation
The tragic events of April 2019, when a series of coordinated bombings targeting churches and luxury hotels were executed by Islamic extremists, transformed the landscape of inter-community relations in Sri Lanka. Over 250 people lost their lives, and hundreds more were injured, prompting a steep rise in hostilities toward the Muslim community. In the wake of these bombings, Muslim individuals have found themselves increasingly vulnerable, subjected to heightened scrutiny and the threat of violence from both state actors and Buddhist nationalists. This cycle of retaliatory violence has further entrenched ethnic divisions within the country, leading to widespread fear among Muslim populations and raising questions about the future of communal harmony in Sri Lanka.
As the nation grapples with its complex historical narrative, the intersection of religion and nationalism remains a contentious issue that continues to shape Sri Lanka's social dynamics. The challenges posed by politicized Buddhism, coupled with a fragile sense of security among minorities, underscore the urgent need for dialogue and reconciliation in a society still healing from the wounds of its past.
Mytho-Historical Roots of Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalism
The mytho-historical narratives encapsulated in the Sinhalese Buddhist chronicle, the Mahavamsa, significantly shaped the contours of Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism and the ideologies underpinning militant Buddhism. Compiled in the sixth century CE by Buddhist monks, the Mahavamsa serves as a non-canonical historical text that seeks to exalt Buddhism's role in Sri Lanka. The chronicle presents an elaborate account of three divine visits by Lord Buddha to the island, during which he is believed to have eliminated adversities to Buddhism and appointed deities to protect the Sinhalese ancestors, specifically Prince Vijaya and his followers from North India. This theological narrative has cemented the perception among Sinhalese Buddhists that Sri Lanka is Sihadipa, the island of the Sinhalese, and Dhammadipa, the land sanctified to uphold and disseminate Buddhism. This necessitates a view of the Sinhalese people as the Buddha's chosen guardians of the faith in their promised land.
The Mahavamsa also chronicles the valiant deeds of the Buddhist warrior king, Dutugamunu, who is revered for his military campaigns against the Tamil king Elara, perceived as an usurper from South India. In this narrative, Dutugamunu's motivations are deeply intertwined with the aim of restoring a united Sri Lanka under Buddhist dominion, even at the cost of violence. Strikingly, rather than depicting Elara as a tyrant, the Mahavamsa acknowledges him as a fair ruler; however, it frames Dutugamunu’s actions as necessary for the proliferation of Buddhism. This narrative includes the troubling portrayal of Dutugamunu seeking comfort from eight arhats, who absolve him from guilt regarding the thousands of enemies slain, on the grounds that he has preserved the sanctity of the Buddhist doctrine by vanquishing “unbelievers.” Such interpretations lend weight to the contention within Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism that violence, when rationalized as a defense of Buddhism, becomes a legitimate course of action.
Critically, scholars like Neil DeVotta have pointed out that the Mahavamsa not only legitimizes violent actions against non-Sinhalese groups but also dehumanizes them in the name of safeguarding Buddhist teachings. This historical rhetoric advocates a “just war” doctrine predicated on the notion that militaristic endeavors are acceptable when undertaken to protect the dhamma. Additionally, it reinforces a mythological framework that venerates the Sinhalese as the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka, dismissing pre-Sinhalese inhabitants as subhuman. These narratives serve to weave a fabric of cultural identity around Sinhalese Buddhism, positing the island’s kings as custodians of the Buddhist faith. Such mytho-historical constructs have profound implications, not only for the political landscape of Sri Lanka but also for the long-standing ethos of Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism, which has historically fueled sectarian tensions and conflicts within the nation, particularly as the role of Buddhism intersects with issues of ethnicity and governance.
Emergence of Sinhalese-Buddhist Nationalism
The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries marked a significant transformation in Sri Lankan society as modern Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism emerged as a response to the socio-political changes introduced by British colonial rule. This nationalism was characterized by a revival of old narratives found in the Mahavamsa, a historical chronicle that extols the virtues of the Sinhalese. Such narratives emphasized the dichotomy between Sinhalese and Tamil identities, particularly through the legendary figures of Duthagamani, a Sinhalese king, and Elara, a Tamil ruler. This revitalization contributed to a renewed sense of identity among Sinhalese Buddhists but had a potentially divisive effect on intercommunity relations, exacerbating tensions and conflicts on the island. As Heather Selma Gregg noted, even a faith widely regarded as inherently peaceful, such as Buddhism, can be held up as a torch for divisive nationalism and aggression when intertwined with ethnocentric ideologies.
In the context of British colonialism, which not only facilitated economic exploitation but also introduced Protestant Christian missionary activities, a revivalist movement within the Sinhalese Buddhist community gained momentum. This movement sought to reaffirm Buddhist beliefs and practices in the face of Christian encroachment. A pivotal moment in this revival was the British-sponsored translation of the Mahavamsa into Sinhala, making this historical narrative accessible to a broader audience and reigniting interest in Buddhist heritage. The tensions between Buddhists and Christians materialized into tangible conflict when the first modern communal riot in Sri Lanka occurred in 1883, emphasizing the growing religious divides that were taking shape.
An influential figure in the birth of modern Sinhalese-Buddhist nationalism was Anagarika Dharmapala, often cited as the "father of modern Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism." His work and ideology were characterized by an overt hostility towards non-Sinhalese and non-Buddhist influences. Dharmapala propagated the idea that the Sinhalese were racially pure and belonged to a superior Aryan lineage, contrasting sharply with his views on the Dravidian Tamils, whom he portrayed as oppressors and antagonists towards Buddhism. This narrative perpetuated the myth of a long-standing historical animosity between the two ethnic groups, contributing to a polarization that often culminated in violence and discrimination. His rhetoric extended beyond Tamils; he exhibited intolerance towards Muslims and other religious minorities, advocating a singular national identity rooted in Sinhalese Buddhism.
Dharmapala's legacy is contentious; while he stirred a renaissance in Sinhalese Buddhist pride, he also paved the way for the creation of a more ethnocentric state, laying the foundations for future nationalists to direct hostility and marginalization toward minority communities. His vision emphasized that the island of Sri Lanka belonged to Sinhalese Buddhists, further entrenching the notion of ethnicity and religion as central tenets of national identity. This emphasis on a singular identity continues to resonate in contemporary discussions around nationalism in Sri Lanka, as the historical narratives promulgated by figures like Dharmapala continue to shape the socio-political landscape and inter-ethnic relationships on the island.
The Rise of Politicized Buddhism and Ethnonationalism
Upon achieving independence, Sri Lanka witnessed the emergence of a powerful ideology rooted in Sinhalese ultra-nationalism, significantly influenced by Buddhism. Elite groups within the Sinhalese Buddhist community employed the Mahavamsa, an ancient chronicle, to underpin state policies that aimed to establish Sinhalese Buddhist hegemony. This ideology posited that the Sinhalese people were the chosen custodians of Buddhism, which they viewed as a divine mandate. Consequently, officials within the government and prominent political figures declared a need to reduce Tamil influence on the island, which they considered a necessary step towards a cultural renaissance rooted in Buddhist values.
Key figures, such as D. S. Senanayake, Sri Lanka's inaugural Prime Minister, further solidified these notions. He famously proclaimed that Sinhalese Buddhists shared a unique bond as "one blood and one nation," suggesting that Buddhism and nationalism were inextricably linked. This rhetoric encouraged Buddhist monks to become politically active, advocating for policies that prioritized Sinhalese Buddhist interests while marginalizing minorities. Prominent monks like Walpola Rahula, recognizing the political power to be harnessed from this religious narrative, argued for the necessity of war under certain circumstances to safeguard Buddhism, drawing parallels with the heroism of figures like King Dutthagamani.
Electoral Manipulation and Escalating Ethnic Tensions
In 1956, the politically charged environment intensified with the release of the All Ceylon Buddhist Congress (ACBC) report titled "The Betrayal of Buddhism." Identifying external threats and internal challenges, the report prompted calls for state-sponsored preferential treatment for Buddhism, catalyzing political maneuvers that would further entrench Sinhalese dominance. S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike exploited this momentum during his electoral campaign, pledging to enact policies that would elevate Sinhala to the status of the sole official language, thereby diminishing the rights and opportunities of the Tamil populace.
As Bandaranaike's policies took shape, they produced significant backlash. Tamil protests erupted, leading to violence and rioting instigated by some extremist Buddhist factions. In this atmosphere of tension, controversial compromises attempted by Bandaranaike to appease Tamil demands only heightened nationalist Buddhist sentiments, resulting in significant social upheaval. The abrogation of the 1957 pact with Tamil leaders further inflamed ethnic divisions and led to widespread anti-Tamil riots across the nation, showcasing an escalation in violence supported by both political actions and religious narratives that depicted Tamils as existential threats.
The Trajectory Towards Civil War
The escalation of ethnic conflict reached a traumatic climax during the 1983 anti-Tamil pogrom, where thousands were killed, and countless others displaced. The Sinhalese Buddhist nationalist narrative, dominated by tropes from the Mahavamsa, framed Tamils as invaders of a holy land, which justified brutal responses to any claims for autonomy. This perspective not only inflamed public sentiment against Tamils but also provided a framework for violent reprisals, effectively launching the country into a protracted civil war against the Tamil Tigers (LTTE).
In the midst of this turmoil, militant Buddhist organizations such as the Movement for the Protection of the Motherland sought to consolidate Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism. The government’s reluctance to accommodate Tamil aspirations for autonomy was echoed in the rhetoric of influential Buddhist monks who equated the struggle against Tamil militants with the preservation of a Buddhist nation. The resulting militarization of the civil conflict and strong opposition to concessions for Tamils brought the experiences of ordinary civilians into stark relief, as the narrative of a Buddhist homeland clashed violently with the aspirations of Tamil people.
The Continued Legacy of Ethnonationalism
Post-war Sri Lanka has continued to grapple with the ramifications of this politicized Buddhist nationalism, affecting the fabric of society and its governance. Successive administrations have sought to evade discussions around power-sharing or regional autonomy for Tamils, with entrenched positions rooted in the Mahavamsa narrative. This resistance poses ongoing challenges in fostering peace and reconciliation in a landscape still marked by ethnic divisions.
The hard-line stances of contemporary nationalist parties and organizations illustrate the difficulty of moving beyond this history. Even as global pressures for equitable governance have mounted, significant segments of the Sinhalese population, buoyed by religious leaders, continue to endorse militaristic solutions and confront any initiated dialogue aimed at addressing longstanding grievances. The historic mobilization of Buddhist nationalism remains salient, underlining the challenges that still resonate within Sri Lanka’s multi-ethnic society and its potential pathways toward unity and peace.
Overview of Religious Minorities in Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, religious minorities, particularly Christians and Muslims, have faced increasing violence and persecution at the hands of Sinhalese Buddhist nationalists. The rise of extremist Buddhist groups has been fueled by anxieties among some Buddhists regarding the influence of Western Christianity and the fear that their cultural identity may be compromised. This conflict has intensified in recent years, with extremist factions arguing that Christian missionary activities threaten the sanctity and dominance of Buddhism in the country. Prominent Buddhist monks have gone so far as to equate missionary work with terrorism, which has led to heightened tensions and violence against Christian congregations.
The escalation of anti-Christian violence is telling; the number of attacks on Christian churches surged dramatically from 14 incidents in the year 2000 to over 100 by 2003. U.S. diplomatic observers confirmed many of these invasive actions, which included beatings, arson, and various forms of intimidation against worshippers. The link between these violent acts and nationalism is undeniable, with Sinhalese Buddhist groups such as the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) and Jathika Hela Urumaya (JHU) endorsing or executing measures against what they perceive as attempts to lure Buddhists away from their faith.
Impact of Buddhist Extremism on Religious Harmony
As Sri Lanka emerged from its lengthy civil war, the socio-political landscape remained fraught with ethnic and religious tensions. Attacks against Christian and Muslim institutions by Buddhist extremists have continued, allegedly justified by claims that conversion efforts are deceitful or coercive. The Pew Research Center identified Sri Lanka as one of the nations with very high religious hostilities as of 2012, highlighting the turmoil faced by both Muslim and Christian communities amidst violent protests and aggressive takeovers of their temples and churches.
The emergence of groups like the Bodu Bala Sena (BBS), formed in 2012 by radical Buddhist monks, exemplifies the growing pressures on these minority groups. The BBS has been implicated in inciting anti-Muslim riots, which tragically resulted in deaths and injuries, showcasing a disturbing trend toward violence under the guise of religious protectionism. The group's leaders have resorted to inflammatory rhetoric, equating their military victories against Tamil forces as historical lessons meant to intimidate other ethnic minorities. By illustrating the BBS's narratives as a struggle to maintain power and purity within the Sinhalese Buddhist culture, they foster an environment rife with fear and hostility.
Responses and Internal Divisions Within Buddhism
However, not all voices within the Buddhist community resonate with the extremism espoused by the BBS. Prominent Sri Lankan political figures and moderate Buddhist monks have vocally opposed the group’s ideology and actions. For instance, Mangala Samaraweera, a prominent Theravada Buddhist politician, has denounced the BBS and labeled its activities as akin to "Taliban terrorism." He has also raised concerns regarding the alleged financial backing of the BBS from governmental entities, suggesting a deeper, more insidious entanglement of state apparatus in fueling religious extremism.
Furthermore, many within the Sangha community have called for a return to a more compassionate and moderate approach to religion, emphasizing dialogue over violence. Figures like Anunayake Bellanwila Wimalaratana have publicly distanced themselves from the BBS, affirming that its views do not represent the entirety of the Buddhist community, while also asserting the importance of reasoned discussions over brutal confrontations. Wataraka Vijitha Thero, another monk, who has faced severe repercussions for his outspoken criticism of the BBS, underscores the struggles faced by those within Buddhism who seek to promote peace and understanding. This internal conflict within Buddhism is a crucial element in addressing the broader societal issues of violence and discrimination against religious minorities in Sri Lanka.
Buddhist Opposition to Sinhala Buddhist Nationalism
Sinhala Buddhist nationalism has emerged as a significant political force in Sri Lanka, emphasizing the primacy of Sinhalese culture and ethnicity. Influenced by the teachings of figures like Anagarika Dharmapāla, this movement has often justified the use of violence in defense of what they perceive as the Buddhist faith. However, while both Sinhala Buddhist nationalism and the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement share certain historical and philosophical influences, their ideological paths diverge sharply. Sarvodaya, founded by Dr. A. T. Ariyaratne, advocates for a non-violent approach to societal transformation, rooted in Buddhist values of peace, compassion, and social justice.
The Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement stands in stark opposition to the ideologies espoused by Buddhist nationalists. Dr. Ariyaratne emphasizes a vision of peace that rejects violence and actively condemns the denigration of human rights, particularly towards Tamils and other non-Buddhists in Sri Lanka. He promotes the idea that true change can only come through non-violent means, calling for a collective effort to overcome selfishness and cultivate a sense of interconnectedness among all individuals. Ariyaratne's philosophy urges followers to relinquish the ego-centric view of "I and mine," and instead embrace the universal truths that bind all living beings together.
Ariyaratne has been a prominent figure in advocating for social action grounded in Buddhist principles for many years. His teachings stress that the path to peace requires a commitment to Truth, Non-violence, and Selflessness. He famously articulated the interconnectedness of personal awakening and communal well-being, suggesting that one's own spiritual enlightenment is intertwined with the efforts to help others. In his view, the act of serving others is not only a moral duty but also a prerequisite for genuine personal development and awakening. This perspective underscores a broader Buddhist ethos that encourages practitioners to act for the welfare of all, reinforcing the idea that personal and societal transformation are inherently linked. By fostering a culture of empathy and understanding, Dr. Ariyaratne aims to guide Sri Lanka towards a peaceful coexistence, transcending ethnic divisions and fostering a harmonious society.
Historical Context of Buddhist Violence in Japan
The phenomenon termed "Buddhist violence" in Japan finds its roots in a tumultuous history characterized by internal feuds among various Buddhist sects. The emergence of the sōhei, or "warrior monks," during the Heian period marked a significant shift in the role of monks from spiritual leaders to militaristic figures, which sparked debates about the ethical implications of their dual identity. Despite the core tenets of Buddhism promoting peace and non-violence, these warrior monks engaged in conflicts to protect their temples and uphold their sect's interests. The Ikkō-shū movement, which spearheaded the Ikkō-ikki rebellion, epitomized this conflict, with proponents fiercely defending their beliefs through slogans that rationalized violence as a form of obligation to the Buddha.
Buddhist Support During World War II
The support of Japanese Buddhism for militarization during World War II remains a critical chapter in its history. Buddhist literature from that era expressed an unorthodox justification of violence, suggesting that in the pursuit of peace in East Asia, the application of "benevolent forcefulness" was sometimes necessary. The controversial phrase "killing one in order that many may live" (issatsu tashō) reflects a complex theological rationale that some factions within Buddhism adopted to facilitate state policies. The Japanese Pan-Buddhist Society, known as Myowa Kai, actively defended the government's militaristic agenda. In their effort to align Buddhism with state Shinto, they revised key texts of influential figures like Nichiren, eliminating any components that contradicted the state's ideology. This willingness to endorse wartime policies drew backlash from within the Buddhist community itself, as figures like Ichikawa Haku and Seno'o Girō faced persecution for their outspoken dissent.
Post-War Reflection and Apologies
The aftermath of the war prompted significant introspection within various Buddhist sects, particularly highlighted by Brian Daizen Victoria's seminal work, "Zen at War." Victoria meticulously documented how Buddhist organizations had historically aligned with militarist ideologies and cooperated with the governmental forces during critical conflicts like the Russo-Japanese War and World War II. In light of this revelation, numerous Buddhist sects subsequently issued formal apologies for their wartime complicity. This movement toward accountability reflects a growing awareness of the need for ethical accountability and a separation of religious practices from state nationalism.
Modern Manifestations of Buddhist Extremism
In contemporary Japan, the shadows of Buddhist-inspired terrorism and militarism are not entirely absent. One notable incident is the League of Blood Incident, orchestrated by Nissho Inoue, a radical Nichirenist who embodied fascist-nationalist sentiments and incited violence under the guise of spiritual purism. Additionally, Aum Shinrikyo represents another troubling chapter in the interplay between modern Buddhism and extremist ideology. This controversial doomsday cult was responsible for the harrowing Tokyo subway sarin attack, resulting in fatalities and extensive injuries. Drawing on a blend of early Indian Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, and elements of other religious traditions, Aum Shinrikyo constructed a unique belief system that conflated esoteric spiritual practices with apocalyptic visions. Despite debates over its legitimacy as a Buddhist movement, scholars often regard it as a significant offshoot of Japanese Buddhism, illustrating how radical interpretations can emerge from traditional systems.
This exploration reveals the complex and often contentious relationship between Buddhism and violence in Japan, from historical developments of warrior monks to modern cults, signifying a nuanced narrative that intertwines spiritual devotion with the motivations for conflict.
Khambo Lama Damba Ayusheev is a prominent figure within the Buddhist community in Russia, leading the Buddhist Traditional Sangha of Russia (BTSR), which is the largest Buddhist organization in the country. His support for the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 sparked considerable discussion and controversy, particularly due to the principles of peace and non-violence that are central to Buddhist teachings. This stance reflects not only the complex interplay of religious leadership and national politics but also highlights how spiritual leaders may align their beliefs with national interests.
The Buddhist population in Russia is primarily concentrated in regions like Buryatia, Kalmykia, and Tuva, where Buddhism coexists with a significant Russian Orthodox presence. Given this religious diversity, Ayusheev's position carries substantial weight in shaping public opinion within and outside of the Buddhist community, raising questions about the role of religious leaders in geopolitical conflicts. His endorsement of the invasion could be seen as an attempt to unify his followers under a nationalistic agenda, though it also risks alienating those who adhere to the non-violent principles of Buddhism.
Additionally, the decision of a religious leader to publicly support war efforts illustrates the ongoing tensions between spiritual beliefs and political actions, prompting debates around the responsibilities and ethical stances of those in positions of authority. This situation underscores the broader implications of religious leadership in times of conflict and the impact such endorsements can have on interfaith relationships and community cohesion in Russia, as different sects and faiths navigate their identities in the context of national narratives.