Meaning and Types of Political Parties
Political parties are voluntary associations of individuals united by shared political ideologies. These organized groups pursue power through constitutional means, with the ultimate aim of advancing national interests. In modern democracies, scholars classify them into four ideological types: reactionary parties, which tenaciously defend outdated socio-economic and political structures; conservative parties, which prioritize preserving the status quo; liberal parties, which seek gradual reforms to existing institutions; and radical parties, which strive to dismantle the current order and establish a fundamentally new one.
This classification aligns with the ideological spectrum, where radical parties occupy the left, liberal parties the centre, and reactionary or conservative parties the right. Commonly referred to as leftist, centrist, and rightist parties, real-world examples in India illustrate this divide: the Communist Party of India (CPI) and Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPM) represent leftist ideologies, the Indian National Congress embodies centrism, and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) aligns with rightist positions.
Party Systems Worldwide
Beyond ideology, political parties operate within distinct party systems, of which three predominant forms exist globally. The one-party system features a single dominant ruling party, with no tolerance for opposition—as seen in former communist states like the USSR and Eastern European nations. In contrast, the two-party system revolves around two major parties alternating power, exemplified by the United States and the United Kingdom. Finally, the multi-party system involves numerous parties, often necessitating coalition governments to form administrations, as in France, Switzerland, and Italy. These systems shape the dynamics of democratic governance in profound ways.
Distinctive Features of Indias Party System
Party System in India
India's dynamic democracy hinges on its party system, which stands out for several distinctive characteristic features.
Multi-Party System
India's immense continental size, its profound social diversity, the adoption of universal adult franchise, and the distinctive dynamics of its political evolution have together spawned an extraordinarily large number of political parties—more than any other nation in the world. On the eve of the seventeenth Lok Sabha elections in 2019, the landscape included seven national parties, fifty-two state parties, and as many as 2,354 registered but unrecognized parties.
This multiplicity spans the full ideological spectrum, from left-wing and centrist formations to right-wing, communal, and non-communal outfits. The result has been a recurring feature of Indian politics: hung Parliaments and state assemblies, which have normalized coalition governments as the standard mode of governance.
One-Party Dominant System
Despite India's formal multi-party framework, the political landscape was overwhelmingly shaped by the Indian National Congress for decades after independence. Eminent political scientist Rajni Kothari captured this reality by describing the system not as a true multi-party arrangement, but as a one-party dominant system—or simply, the Congress system. This dominance began to erode after the 1967 elections, as regional parties gained ground alongside emerging national challengers such as the Janata Party (1977), Janata Dal (1989), and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1991. These shifts paved the way for a genuinely competitive multi-party polity, marked by coalition dynamics and broader electoral contestation.
Lack of Clear Ideology
In India's vibrant yet fragmented political arena, only the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the two communist outfits—the Communist Party of India (CPI) and Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))—stand out with well-defined ideologies. All other parties suffer from ideological ambiguity, clustering closely together in their outlook. Their policy platforms and agendas mirror one another remarkably, as virtually every party endorses core values like democracy, secularism, socialism, and Gandhism. Yet this apparent consensus masks a deeper reality: even these ostensibly ideological groups are propelled by a single overriding motive—the quest for power. As a result, Indian politics has evolved into an issue-driven contest, where pragmatic expediency has eclipsed steadfast adherence to principles.
Personality Cult in Indian Politics
A defining characteristic of Indian political parties is the pervasive influence of personality cults, where charismatic leaders often overshadow the party's ideology and manifesto. Rather than rallying around programs or principles, voters and supporters identify parties primarily through their prominent figures, turning these leaders into the very embodiment of the organization.
This phenomenon is vividly illustrated by the Indian National Congress, whose enduring popularity stemmed largely from the magnetic leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, and Rajiv Gandhi. In regional politics, the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) in Tamil Nadu became inseparable from M.G. Ramachandran, just as the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh revolved around N.T. Rama Rao. The trend is even more explicit in parties named after their founders, such as Biju Janata Dal, Lok Dal (A), and Congress (I). As observers often note, India boasts more political personalities than political parties.
Political Parties Formed on Traditional Lines
In Western democracies, political parties typically emerge around broad socio-economic and ideological platforms, uniting voters through shared visions of governance and policy. India, however, presents a stark contrast, where numerous parties coalesce around primordial identities such as religion, caste, language, culture, or ethnicity. Prominent examples include the Shiv Sena (regional and Marathi identity), the All India Muslim League (Muslim interests), the Hindu Mahasabha (Hindu nationalism), the Shiromani Akali Dal (Sikh community), the Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (Muslim welfare), the Bahujan Samaj Party (Dalit empowerment), the Republican Party of India (Scheduled Castes), and the All India Gorkha League (Gorkha ethnic group). By prioritizing these communal or sectional agendas, such parties often erode the broader national interest, fragmenting the electorate along divisive lines.
Emergence of Regional Parties
A defining characteristic of India's party system has been the rise of numerous regional parties and their expanding influence. These parties have solidified their dominance in several states, forming governments such as the Bijug Janata Dal (BJD) in Orissa, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) or All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) in Tamil Nadu, the Shiromani Akali Dal in Punjab, the Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) in Assam, the National Conference in Jammu and Kashmir, and Janata Dal (United) (JD(U)) in Bihar, among others.
Initially, these outfits operated strictly within their regional boundaries, focusing on local issues and identities. However, their footprint has grown dramatically in national politics, largely thanks to the era of coalition governments at the Centre. A striking example came in the 1984 Lok Sabha elections, when the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) surged ahead to become the single largest opposition force in the lower house, underscoring the shifting power dynamics in Indian democracy.
Factions and Defections
Factionalism, defections, splits, mergers, fragmentation, and polarization have long shaped the turbulent dynamics of political parties in India. Driven by an unquenchable thirst for power and personal gain, politicians frequently abandon their original parties to join rivals or launch new ones, undermining the stability of the political system. This practice surged dramatically after the fourth general elections of 1967, a turning point when the Congress party's dominance began to wane, paving the way for coalition governments and heightened opportunism.
The fallout was profound: widespread defections fueled instability at both the national and state levels, accelerating the disintegration of major parties. The result is a fractured landscape, with duplicates like two Janata Dals, two Telugu Desam Parties (TDPs), two Dravida Munnetra Kazhagams (DMKs), two Communist parties, two Congress outfits, three Akali Dals, and three Muslim Leagues—a testament to how internal rivalries have splintered once-unified movements.
Lack of Effective Opposition
In India's parliamentary democracy, a robust Opposition is indispensable. It serves as a vital check on the ruling party's potential for autocracy while offering a credible alternative government to voters. Yet, over the past five decades, no strong, unified, and nationally viable Opposition has truly materialized—appearing only in fleeting moments.
Instead, Opposition parties have remained fragmented, frequently adopting contradictory stances toward the government. This disunity has undermined their ability to contribute constructively to parliamentary proceedings and the broader process of nation-building, leaving a critical void in the democratic framework.
Recognition of National and State Parties
The Election Commission of India plays a pivotal role in regulating political parties by registering them for elections and granting recognition as national or state parties based on their electoral performance. Parties that do not meet these criteria are classified as registered-unrecognised parties. This recognition is more than a mere label—it unlocks key privileges, such as reserved party symbols, allocated time for political broadcasts on state-owned television and radio, and priority access to electoral rolls.
Recognised parties enjoy practical advantages during elections. For instance, they require only one proposer to file nominations, streamlining the process. They can also deploy up to 40 star campaigners, compared to just 20 for registered-unrecognised parties. Crucially, the travel expenses of these star campaigners do not count toward the candidates' election expenditure limits, giving recognised parties a significant edge in mobilization.
A cornerstone of this system is the allocation of symbols. National parties receive a unique symbol reserved exclusively for their use across the country, while state parties get one reserved solely in the states where they are recognised. In contrast, registered-unrecognised parties must choose from a pool of free symbols. The Commission maintains a clear distinction: reserved symbols are set aside for candidates of recognised parties, ensuring brand consistency and voter familiarity, while free symbols remain available to independents and unrecognised contenders. This framework not only promotes fairness but also incentivizes strong electoral showings.
Conditions for Recognition as a National Party
In India, the Election Commission grants national party status to political outfits that demonstrate significant electoral support across the country. As of 2019, a party qualifies by meeting any one of the following three criteria, each designed to reflect broad-based popularity and representation.
The first pathway requires securing at least six percent of the valid votes polled in four or more states during a general election to the Lok Sabha or any state legislative assembly. In addition, the party must win at least four seats in the Lok Sabha from any state or states, ensuring a tangible legislative footprint.
A second route is simpler in terms of vote share but demands geographic spread: the party must claim at least two percent of the total Lok Sabha seats in a general election, with its winning candidates elected from at least three different states.
Finally, a party can achieve national recognition without contesting elections directly if it is already acknowledged as a state party in four or more states, leveraging its established regional dominance to claim a national mantle. These rules, rooted in the Representation of the People Act, help distinguish truly pan-Indian forces from regional players.
Recognition as a State Party
In India's vibrant multi-party democracy, the Election Commission of India grants state party status to a political outfit based on its electoral performance in a specific state. As of 2019, a party qualifies under any one of the following five conditions, each tied to results from general elections to either the state legislative assembly or the Lok Sabha.
A party meets the first criterion by securing at least six percent of the valid votes polled in the state during a legislative assembly election, while also winning at least two seats in that assembly. The second condition applies to parliamentary polls: the party must poll six percent of the valid votes in the state for the Lok Sabha and clinch at least one seat from there. Alternatively, under the third provision, it suffices to win three percent of the total seats in the state assembly—or at least three seats, whichever yields the higher number. The fourth threshold, relevant for Lok Sabha contests, requires the party to capture one seat for every 25 seats (or fraction thereof) allocated to the state. Finally, introduced in 2011, the fifth condition offers a streamlined option: securing eight percent of the total valid votes in the state, whether in a Lok Sabha or assembly election.
These benchmarks ensure that only parties with meaningful electoral backing earn recognition, though the roster of state parties fluctuates with each general election cycle. Just before the seventeenth Lok Sabha polls in 2019, India had seven national parties, 52 state parties, and a staggering 2,354 registered but unrecognized parties. Notably, national parties are often termed all-India parties, while state parties go by the moniker of regional parties, reflecting their geographic scope.